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Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) incidence is greatly increased after kidney transplantation. NHL risk was investigated in a nationwide cohort of 8164 kidney transplant recipients registered on the Australia and New Zealand Dialysis and Transplant Registry. NHL diagnoses were ascertained using linkage with national cancer registry records. Multivariate Poisson regression was used to compute incidence rate ratios (IRRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) comparing risk by transplant function, and risk factors for early (< 2 years) and late (≥ 2 years) NHL during the first transplantation. NHL occurred in 133 patients. Incidence was strikingly lower after transplant failure and cessation of immunosuppression than during transplant function (IRR, 0.25; 95% CI, 0.08-0.80; P = .019). Early NHL (n = 27) was associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) seronegativity at transplantation (IRR, 4.66; 95% CI, 2.10-10.36, P < .001) and receipt of T cell–depleting antibodies (IRR, 2.39; 95% CI, 1.08-5.30; P = .031). Late NHL (n = 79) was associated with increasing year of age (IRR, 1.02; 95% CI, 1.01-1.04; P = .006), increasing time since transplantation (P < .001), and current use of calcineurin inhibitors (IRR, 3.13; 95% CI, 1.53-6.39; P = .002). These findings support 2 mechanisms of lymphomagenesis, one predominantly of primary EBV infection in the context of intense immunosuppression, and another of dysregulated lymphoid proliferation in a prolonged immunosuppressed state.

Understanding which factors influence mammographically dense and nondense areas is important because percent mammographic density adjusted for age is a strong, continuously distributed risk factor for breast cancer, especially when adjusted for weight or body mass index. Using computer-assisted methods, we measured mammographically dense areas for 571 monozygotic and 380 dizygotic Australian and North American twin pairs ages 40 to 70 years. We used a novel regression modeling approach in which each twin's measure of dense and nondense area was regressed against one or both of the twin's and co-twin's covariates. The nature of changes to regression estimates with the inclusion of the twin and/or co-twin's covariates can be evaluated for consistency with causal and/or other models. By causal, we mean that if it were possible to vary a covariate experimentally then the expected value of the outcome measure would change. After adjusting for the individual's weight, the co-twin associations with weight were attenuated, consistent with a causal effect of weight on mammographic measures, which in absolute log cm2/kg was thrice stronger for nondense than dense area. After adjusting for weight, later age at menarche, and greater height were associated with greater dense and lesser nondense areas in a manner inconsistent with causality. The associations of dense and nondense areas with parity are consistent with a causal effect and/or within-person confounding. The associations between mammographic density measures and height are consistent with shared early life environmental factors that predispose to both height and percent mammographic density and possibly breast cancer risk. (Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008;17(12):3474–81)

International audience; OBJECTIVE: To examine whether childhood brain tumors (CBTs) are associated with a family history of brain tumors or other cancers in an international case-control study. METHODS: Cancers in children's first- and second-degree relatives were ascertained by interview with parents of 620 children with astroglial tumors, 255 with primitive neuroectodermal tumors, 324 with other CBTs, and 2,218 controls from Australia, Canada, France, Israel, Italy, Spain, and the US. These were used with histories of neurofibromatosis or tuberous sclerosis to exclude in subanalyses children with Li-Fraumeni or other hereditary syndromes predisposing to brain tumors. RESULTS: A first- or second-degree relative of 4% of children with astroglial tumors, 6% with PNET, 5% with other CBTs, and 5% of controls had had a brain tumor. Any potential differences were statistically non-significant, including when focusing on relatives diagnosed in childhood. In the US, where anatomical sites of relatives' other cancers were known, CBT occurrence was not associated with any other specific site. Results were not markedly altered by exclusion of children with hereditary syndromes. CONCLUSION: Consistent with most prior studies using these methods, we observed no strong relationship between CBT occurrence and cancers in family members.

Mutations in the DNA mismatch repair gene MSH2 lead to increased replication error and microsatellite instability and account for a substantial proportion of hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (Lynch syndrome). A recent international collaborative genome-wide linkage scan (GWS) for breast cancer susceptibility loci found some evidence for there being a breast cancer susceptibility gene in a genomic region on chromosome 2p close to MSH2. We sought to investigate the possibility that mutations in MSH2 might explain the multiple cases of breast cancer in some families that were included in the international GWS. DNA samples from the affected probands of 59 multiple-case breast cancer families, many of whom gave LOD scores >0.5 in the MSH2 region, were screened for large genomic alterations in MSH2 via the Multiplex Ligation-dependant Probe Amplification (MLPA) assay and for coding region mutations via exonic sequencing. Several of the families also contained cases of colorectal cancer in addition to breast cancer and had been included in the GWS that had identified a positive LOD score on chromosome 2p. Using MLPA, c.1236C > T was identified in one proband but this variant was not predicted to create an alternate acceptor/donor site within exon 7 MSH2 using in silico analyses. A c.1734T > C was identified in a second proband via exonic sequencing but testing of the variant in other family members did not support segregation of this variant with disease. Extensive screening of 59 multiple-case breast cancer families did not identify any coding region mutations or larger genomic alterations in MSH2 that might implicate MSH2 as a breast cancer susceptibility gene.

The development of a sarcomatoid morphotype is recognized as an extreme form of dedifferentiation in renal cell carcinoma and is associated with a poor prognosis. Although sarcomatoid renal cell carcinoma shows pronounced spindle cell morphology, clear cell renal cell carcinoma may show early spindle cell change with cellular elongation, and the prognostic significance of this is debated. To determine the relationship between sarcomatoid renal cell carcinoma and clear cell renal cell carcinoma showing early spindle cell change, we have investigated collagen expression using immunohistochemistry in these 2 tumor types. Both sarcomatoid renal cell carcinoma and early spindle cell change tumors showed pericellular interstitial expression of collagen types I and III, whereas sarcomatoid renal cell carcinoma also showed cytoplasmic expression of these collagen types. Expression of these collagen types in typical clear cell renal cell carcinoma was, in occasional cases, limited to faint and patchy staining in a pericellular interstitial distribution. Tumor cells did not stain for collagen type IV in sarcomatoid renal cell carcinoma, early spindle cell change, or typical clear cell renal cell carcinoma. In sarcomatoid renal cell carcinoma, there was diffuse pericellular expression of collagen type V and patchy pericellular expression of collagen type VI, whereas early spindle cell change tumors showed patchy pericellular staining with antibodies to collagen type V. Collagen type VI expression in early spindle cell change was largely confined to the vascular adventitia and areas of scarring, although very occasional foci of faint interstitial staining were also seen. In typical clear cell renal cell carcinoma, staining of collagen types V and VI was limited to the vascular adventitia and foci of desmoplasia, whereas no staining of tumor cell cytoplasm were seen. This study has shown that collagen expression of sarcomatoid renal cell carcinoma differs from that of early spindle cell change and provides validating evidence that these 2 morphotypes should not be considered together for classification purposes.

Breast cancer exhibits familial aggregation, consistent with variation in genetic susceptibility to the disease. Known susceptibility genes account for less than 25% of the familial risk of breast cancer, and the residual genetic variance is likely to be due to variants conferring more moderate risks. To identify further susceptibility alleles, we conducted a two-stage genome-wide association study in 4,398 breast cancer cases and 4,316 controls, followed by a third stage in which 30 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were tested for confirmation in 21,860 cases and 22,578 controls from 22 studies. We used 227,876 SNPs that were estimated to correlate with 77% of known common SNPs in Europeans at r2 > 0.5. SNPs in five novel independent loci exhibited strong and consistent evidence of association with breast cancer (P

This study was undertaken to assess the prognostic effectiveness of Fuhrman nuclear grading and the individual components of this grading system, in a series of chromophobe renal cell carcinomas. Eighty-seven cases of chromophobe renal cell carcinoma were investigated. There were 47 males and 40 females, 28 to 78 years of age. The carcinomas ranged from 25 to 180 mm in size and on TNM staging there were 38 stage I, 25 stage II, 22 stage III, and 2 stage IV tumors. Whole tumor Fuhrman grading was grade 1, 6 cases; grade 2, 72 cases; grade 3, 8 cases; and grade 4, 1 case, whereas focal (single high power field) grading was grade 1, 1 case; grade 2, 62 cases; grade 3, 21 cases; and grade 4, 3 cases. On assignment of nucleolar grading using Fuhrman criteria there were 37 grade 1, 44 grade 2, and 4 grade 3 tumors on whole tumor assessment and 3 grade 1, 63 grade 2, and 21 grade 3 tumors on assessment of the high power field showing the greatest degree of nuclear pleomorphism. Measurements of nuclear size showed nuclear area to range from 26.14 to 100.74 microm2, nuclear perimeter from 19.73 to 39.28 microm, and nuclear major axis from 6.49 to 13.21 microm, whereas the ranges of measures of nuclear shape were; shape factor 0.798 to 0.890, compactness 14.260 to 15.843, and feret diameter 5.694 to 11.242. Follow-up ranged from 1 to 150 months and 8 patients died of tumor-related causes 5 to 53 months from diagnosis. On log rank testing against survival, only patient age (P=0.016) and tumor maximum diameter (P=0.0055) were significant, whereas patient sex and TNM stage were not significant. Whole tumor and focal Fuhrman grading, as well as all measures of nucleolar prominence, nuclear size, and nuclear shape showed no significant association with outcome. It is concluded that neither Fuhrman grading, nor any of the components of the Fuhrman grading system, is useful as prognostic indicators for this tumor type.

SUMMARY: Aims: To determine if rates of diabetic and non-diabetic end-stage renal disease (ESRD), which had been rising in young and middle-aged adults in all populations up to the mid-1990s, had started to decline, and if so, whether improvement had occurred in respect of each of the principal primary renal diseases causing ESRD. Methods: Poisson regression of age- and sex-standardized incidence of ESRD for persons aged 20–64 years in 18 populations from Europe, Canada and the Asia-Pacific region, for 1998–2002. Results: In persons from 12 European descent (Europid) populations combined, there was a small downward trend in all-cause ESRD (−1.7% per year, P = 0.001), with type 1 diabetic ESRD falling by 7.8% per year (P

BACKGROUND: Only unbiased estimates of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) incidence and trends are useful for disease control-identification of risk factors and measuring the effect of intervention. METHODS: Age- and sex-standardized incidences (with trends) were calculated for all-cause and diabetic/non-diabetic ESRD for persons aged 0-14, 15-29, 30-44 and 45-64 years in 13 populations identified geographically, and six populations identified by ethnicity. RESULTS: The incidence of ESRD varied most with age, ethnicity and prevalence of diabetes. All non-Europid populations had excess ESRD, chiefly due to rates of type 2 diabetic ESRD that were greater than accounted for by community prevalences of diabetes. Their rates of non-diabetic ESRD also were raised, with contributions from most common primary renal diseases except type 1 diabetic nephropathy and polycystic kidney disease. The ESRD rates generally were low, and more similar than different, in Europid populations, except for variable contributions from type 1 (high in Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Canada) and type 2 (high in Austria and Canada) diabetes. In Europid populations during 1998-2002, all-cause ESRD declined by 2% per year in persons aged 0-44 years, and all non-diabetic ESRD by a similar amount in persons aged 45-64 years, in whom diabetic ESRD had increased by 3% per year. CONCLUSIONS: Increased susceptibility to type 2 diabetes and to kidney disease progression characterizes excess ESRD in non-Europid peoples. The decline in all-cause ESRD in young persons, and non-diabetic ESRD in the middle-aged, probably reflects improving management of progressive renal disease.

International audience; N-nitroso compounds (NOC) have been associated with carcinogenesis in a wide range of species, including humans. There is strong experimental data showing that nitrosamides (R(1)NNO.COR(2)), a type of NOC, are potent neuro-carcinogens when administered transplacentally. Some medications are a concentrated source of amides or amines, which in the presence of nitrites under normal acidic conditions of the stomach can form NOC. Therefore, these compounds, when ingested by women during pregnancy, may be important risk factors for tumors of the central nervous system in the offspring. The aim of the present study was to test the association between maternal use of medications that contain nitrosatable amines or amides and risk of primary childhood brain tumors (CBT). A case-control study was conducted, which included 1,218 cases and 2,223 population controls, recruited from 9 centers across North America, Europe and Australia. Analysis was conducted for all participants combined, by tumor type (astroglial, primitive neuroectodermal tumors and other glioma), and by age at diagnosis (< or =5 years; >5 years). There were no significant associations between maternal intake of medication containing nitrosatable amines or amides and CBT, for all participants combined and after stratification by age at diagnosis and histological subtype. This is the largest case-control study of CBT and maternal medications to date. Our data provide little support for an association between maternal use of medications that may form NOC and subsequent development of CBT in the offspring.

Purpose: Obesity is associated with adverse outcomes in postmenopausal women with breast cancer. In premenopausal women, the association is less clear. Methods: A population-based sample of 1,360 Australian women with breast cancer before the age of 60 years, 47% diagnosed before age 40, and 74% premenopausal, was studied prospectively for a median of 5 years (range, 0.2-10.8 years). Obesity was defined as a body mass index of ≥30 kg/m2. The hazard ratio (HR) for adverse clinical outcome associated with obesity was estimated using Cox proportional hazard survival models. Results: Obesity increased with age (P < 0.001) and was associated with increased breast cancer recurrence (P = 0.02) and death (P = 0.06), larger tumors (P = 0.002), and more involved axillary nodes (P = 0.003) but not with hormone receptor status (P ≥ 0.6) or with first cycle adjuvant chemotherapy dose reductions (P = 0.1). Adjusting for number of axillary nodes, age at diagnosis, tumor size, grade, and hormone receptor status, obese women of all ages were more likely than nonobese women to have disease recurrence [HR, 1.57; 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 1.11-2.22; P = 0.02] and to die from any cause during follow-up (HR, 1.56; 95% CI, 1.01-2.40; P = 0.05). In premenopausal women, the adjusted HRs were 1.50 (95% CI, 1.00-2.26; P = 0.06) and 1.71 (95% CI, 1.05-2.77; P = 0.04), respectively. Conclusions: Obesity is independently associated with poorer outcomes in premenopausal women, as it is in postmenopausal women, and this is not entirely explained by differences in tumor size or nodal status. Given the high and increasing prevalence of obesity in western countries, more research on improving the treatment of obese breast cancer patients is warranted.

Rates of treated end-stage renal disease have risen relentlessly throughout the Western world over the past 30 years, with little indication of a slowing in the rate. This increase has a number of causes, such as important trends in disease prevalence, changing population structure, and changing treatment patterns. A number of biases also affect measured rates of renal replacement therapy. These biases include lead-time and length bias, as well as classification bias. A further important effect will be changes in competing risks, in particular, changing mortality from cardiovascular disease. We examine the effects of these factors by analyzing data from the Australia and New Zealand Dialysis and Transplant (ANZDATA) Registry. Rates of treated ESRD have risen steadily over the past 30 years, which appears to be the result of several factors. Rates among older people have increased particularly, as have rates among Australian and New Zealand indigenous peoples. Higher rates are also seen among some immigrant groups. Accentuating the effect of these changing rates are changes in the structure of the population and the tendency to commence treatment earlier. The increase in rates of ESRD treatment is often ascribed to an explosion of kidney disease. Although a major contribution comes from increasing disease prevalence, understanding the implications of this increase requires comprehension of a number of other factors.

SUMMARY: Background: Five sources of change modify trends in incidence of treated end-stage renal disease (ESRD): (i) demography; (ii) disease control, comprising prevention and treatment of progressive kidney disease; (iii) competing risks, which encompass dying from untreated uraemia or non-renal comorbidity; (iv) lead-time bias; and (v) classification bias. Thus, rising crude incidence of treated ESRD may conceal effective disease control when there has been demographic change, lessening competing risks, or the introduction of bias. Methods: Age-specific incidences of treated ESRD in Australia were calculated from Australia and New Zealand Dialysis and Transplant (ANZDATA) Registry data by indigenous/non-indigenous status (all causes) and by primary renal disease (non-indigenous only) for two successive decades, 1982–1991 and 1992–2001. Results: We postulate that less competing risks explained much of the increase in treated ESRD in the elderly and Indigenous Australians. The increase in glomerulonephritic ESRD in non-indigenous Australians could be ascribed mainly to immigration from non-European countries. There was no significant change in incidence of treated ESRD in Indigenous or non-indigenous persons aged less than 25 years, in non-indigenous persons aged 25–64 years for ESRD caused by hereditary polycystic disease or hypertension, or in type 1 diabetics aged over 55 years. End-stage renal disease from analgesic nephropathy had declined. The increase in treated ESRD caused by type 2 diabetic nephropathy appeared to be multifactorial. Lead-time/length bias and less competing risks may have concealed a small favourable trend in other primary renal diseases. Conclusion: Whether recent disease control measures have had an impact on incidence of treated ESRD is not yet certain, but seems more likely than implied by previous reports.

Experimental evidence suggests that parental exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which occurs primarily through tobacco smoke, occupational exposure, and air pollution, could increase the risk of cancer during childhood. Population-based case-control studies carried out in seven countries as part of the SEARCH Program compared data for 1,218 cases of childhood brain tumors and 2,223 controls (1976-1994). Parental occupational exposure to PAH during the 5-year period before birth was estimated with a job exposure matrix. Risk estimates were adjusted for child's age, sex, and study center. Paternal preconceptional occupational exposure to PAH was associated with increased risks of all childhood brain tumors (odds ratio (OR) = 1.3, 95% confidence interval: 1.1, 1.6) and astroglial tumors (OR = 1.4, 95% confidence interval: 1.1, 1.7). However, there was no trend of increasing risk with predicted level of exposure. Paternal smoking alone (OR = 1.4) was also associated with the risk of astroglial tumors in comparison with nonsmoking, non-occupationally-exposed fathers. Risks for paternal occupational exposure were higher, with (OR = 1.6) or without (OR = 1.7) smoking. Maternal occupational exposure to PAH before conception or during pregnancy was rare, and this exposure was not associated with any type of childhood brain tumor. This large study supports the hypothesis that paternal preconceptional exposure to PAH increases the risk of brain tumors in humans.

Purpose The time interval between last childbirth and subsequent breast cancer diagnosis is emerging as an important prognostic factor for premenopausal women. Patients and Methods We studied, prospectively, 750 women diagnosed with primary invasive breast cancer before age 45 years who participated in the population-based Australian Breast Cancer Family Study (ABCFS). Results Median follow-up time was 4.9 years (range, 0.8 to 10.8 years). Compared with nulliparous women, women who gave birth within 2 years prior to diagnosis were more likely to have axillary node-positive (58% v 41%; P = .01), and estrogen receptor-negative (58% v 39%; P = .005) tumors. The unadjusted hazard ratios for death were 2.3 (95% CI, 1.3 to 3.8; P = .002), 1.7 (95% CI, 1.1 to 2.6; P = .03), and 0.9 (95% CI, 0.6 to 1.5; P = .8) for patients who gave birth less than 2 years, 2 to 5 years, and 5 or more years before diagnosis, respectively. After adjusting for tumor characteristics, these hazard ratios were reduced to 1.9 (95%CI, 1.1 to 3.2; P = .02), 1.3 (95% CI, 0.8 to 2.1; P = .3), and 0.9 (95%CI, 0.5 to 1.4; P = .5). Modeling showed that, compared with nulliparous women, the mortality hazard ratio in parous women was 1.9, decreasing by 8% (95%CI, 4% to 13%; P < .001) for each year between last birth and breast cancer diagnosis. Conclusion Proximity of last childbirth to subsequent breast cancer diagnosis is a predictor of mortality independent of histopathological tumor characteristics. Clinicians should be aware that women diagnosed with breast cancer within a few years following childbirth may have a worse outcome than that suggested solely by the standard histopathological prognostic factors of their cancer.

Objective: To examine the risk of prostate cancer associated with foods and nutrients, including individual fatty acids and carotenoids. Methods: Population-based case–control study of 858 men aged

Various statistical methods have been proposed to evaluate associations between measured genetic variants and disease, including some using family designs. For breast cancer and rare variants, we applied a modified segregation analysis method that uses the population cancer incidence and population-based case families in which a mutation is known to be segregating. Here we extend the method to a common polymorphism, and use a regressive logistic approach to model familial aggregation by conditioning each individual on their mother's breast cancer history. We considered three models: 1) class A regressive logistic model; 2) age-of-onset regressive logistic model; and 3) proportional hazards familial model. Maximum likelihood estimates were calculated using the software MENDEL. We applied these methods to data from the Australian Breast Cancer Family Study on the CYP17 5'UTR T--C MspA1 polymorphism measured for 1,447 case probands, 787 controls, and 213 relatives of case probands found to have the CC genotype. Breast cancer data for first- and second-degree relatives of case probands were used. The three methods gave consistent estimates. The best-fitting model involved a recessive inheritance, with homozygotes being at an increased risk of 47% (95% CI, 28-68%). The cumulative risk of the disease up to age 70 years was estimated to be 10% or 22% for a CYP17 homozygote whose mother was unaffected or affected, respectively. This analytical approach is well-suited to the data that arise from population-based case-control-family studies, in which cases, controls and relatives are studied, and genotype is measured for some but not all subjects.

Objective: We conducted a case–control study of prostate cancer and familial risk of the disease in Australia between 1994 and 1998, a period during which the incidence of prostate cancer increased dramatically with widespread use of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing. Methods: 1475 cases and 1405 controls were asked about prostate cancer in their first-degree relatives. Odds ratios (OR) were calculated using logistic regression. Results: Cases were more likely to report a family history of prostate cancer than controls (OR 3.0; 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.3–3.9) and cases reporting an affected relative were younger (58.8 versus 60.9 years, p < 0.0001). The OR for an affected first-degree relative increased with increasing number of affected relatives and decreased with increasing age of the case. The OR for more than one affected first-degree relative was 6.9 (95% CI 2.7–18). The OR for an affected brother was 3.9 (95% CI 2.5–6.1) and for an affected father was 2.9 (95% CI 2.1–3.9) but these were not significantly different (p = 0.2). When analyses were repeated including only diagnoses made in relatives prior to 1992, the risks were generally similar except that the OR for an affected brother decreased to 3.1 (95% CI 1.2–3.9). When only relatives' diagnoses made after 1991 were included results were again similar to those for all relatives, although the effect for brothers was greater and the attenuation with age at diagnosis dissipated. Conclusions: The recent introduction of PSA testing that has resulted in a greater prevalence of apparent prostate cancer, does not appear to have substantially altered familial risks of disease, although effects associated with brothers may be inflated.

The etiology of childhood brain tumors (CBTs) remains unknown. Tobacco smoke contains several known carcinogens and can induce DNA adducts in human placenta and hemoglobin adducts in fetuses. We present the results of an international case-control study to evaluate the association between CBTs and exposure of parents and children to cigarette smoke. The study was undertaken as part of the SEARCH program of the IARC. Nine centers in 7 countries were involved. The studies mainly covered the 1980s and early 1990s. Cases (1,218, ages 0-19 years) were children newly diagnosed with a primary brain tumor; there were 2,223 population-based controls. Most mothers who agreed to participate were interviewed in person at home. Odds ratios (ORs) were calculated by unconditional logistic regression, adjusted for age, sex and center, for all types of CBT combined, 4 CBT histotypes, 5 age groups and each center. There was no association between the risk of brain tumors in the child and parental smoking prior to pregnancy, maternal smoking or regular exposure to others' cigarette smoke during pregnancy at home or at work, or passive smoking by the child during the first year of life. These results did not change considering the child's age at diagnosis, the histologic type of tumor or center.

BACKGROUND The T1 and T2 classifications of the International Union Against Cancer TNM classification system for renal cell carcinoma are based on primary tumor size, and in various editions of the classification, the cut points between T1 and T2 have been amended to provide clinical utility. In the current edition, the T1/T2 cut point is less than or equal to and greater than 7 cm. and more recently a subdivision of the T1 classification (less than or equal to and < 4 cm) has been proposed to identify patients suitable for partial nephrectomy. This study investigates the prognostic significance of tumor size in a series of organ-confined clear cell renal cell carcinomas. METHODS One hundred thirty cases of organ-confined clear cell renal cell carcinomas, with a minimum of 5 years' follow-up, were identified from the New South Wales Cancer Registry. Tumor size was compared with survival using the method of Kaplan and Meier for TNM size categories, and proportional hazards regression was used for assessing size as a continuous variable. Proportional hazards regression also was used for multivariable comparisons of size and other prognostic parameters (Fuhrman grade, AgNOR score, and Ki-67 index) against survival. RESULTS Of 116 cases for which tumor dimension was recorded, 25 patients had died of cancer-related causes. Primary tumor size ranged from 12 to 140 mm (mean, 57.3 mm). The association between survival and size was significant irrespective of the TNM classification and was also significant when size was modeled continuously (P = 0.000125, hazard of death increased by 3.51 times for each doubling of tumor size). On univariate analysis, Fuhrman grade (P = 0.04) and AgNOR score (P = 0.015) were associated with survival; however, on multivariate analysis only tumor size retained significance. CONCLUSIONS Although the cut point of T1 and T2 TNM categories and the proposed T1 subdivision cut point correlate with survival, our finding that size is a continuous variable indicates that as a prognostic parameter for clear cell renal cell carcinoma, primary tumor size is relative rather than indicative. Cancer 2002;94:658–64. © 2002 American Cancer Society. DOI 10.1002/cncr.10255

Segregation analyses aim to detect genetic factors that have a major effect on an individual's risk of disease and to describe them in terms of mode of inheritance, age-specific cumulative risk (penetrance), and allele frequency. We conducted single- and two-locus segregation analyses of data from 1,476 men with prostate cancer diagnosed at age

This study was devised to determine the prevalence of urinary symptoms among men living in the Australian cities of Melbourne, Sydney or Perth, and to identify factors associated with the presence of moderate-to-severe urinary symptoms.The study comprised a population-based sample of 1,216 men, aged 40-69 years, whose names were obtained through electoral rolls and who participated as controls in a case-control study of risk factors for prostate cancer. As part of a structured face-to-face interview, the men completed the International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS). Men with moderate (IPSS = 8-19) or severe (IPSSor = 20) urinary symptoms were compared with those with mild or no symptoms (IPSS8) using unconditional logistic regression.The age-specific prevalence of moderate-to-severe urinary symptoms (IPSSor = 8) in men aged 40-49, 50-59, 60-69 years was 16%, 23% and 28%, respectively. Compared with men with no or mild urinary symptoms (IPSS8), men with moderate-to-severe symptoms were more likely to report not currently living as married [odds ratio (OR) = 1.5; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.1-2.0] and being circumcised (OR = 1.5; 95% Cl 1.2-2.0). The increased likelihood associated with drinking an average of60 g day(-1) of alcohol in the 2 years before interview was of marginal statistical significance (OR = 1.6; 1.0-2.6). There were no significant differences between men with IPSSor = 8 and those with IPSS8 with respect to body mass index, education level, having had a vasectomy, or cigarette smoking.Among Australian men, being circumcised, or not currently living as married, were associated with increased prevalence of urinary symptoms.

Objective: To evaluate the role of parental occupations in the etiology of childhood brain tumors (CBT).

Mutations in BRCA1 (ref. 1) confer an increased risk of female breast cancer2. In a genome-wide scan of linkage disequilibrium (LD), a high level of LD was detected among microsatellite markers flanking BRCA1 (ref. 3), raising the prospect that positive natural selection may have acted on this gene. We have used the predictions of evolutionary genetic theory to investigate this further. Using phylogeny-based maximum likelihood analysis of the BRCA1 sequences from primates and other mammals, we found that the ratios of replacement to silent nucleotide substitutions on the human and chimpanzee lineages were not different from one another (P=0.8), were different from those of other primate lineages (P=0.004) and were greater than 1 (P=0.04). This is consistent with the historic occurrence of positive darwinian selection pressure on the BRCA1 protein in the human and chimpanzee lineages. Analysis of genetic variation in a sample of female Australians of Northern European origin showed evidence for Hardy-Weinberg (HW) disequilibrium at polymorphic sites in BRCA1, consistent with the possibility that natural selection is affecting genotype frequencies in modern Europeans. The clustering of between-species variation in the region of the gene encoding the RAD51-interaction domain of BRCA1 suggests the maintenance of genomic integrity as a possible target of selection.

BACKGROUND Whether phenacetin-containing analgesics cause renal pelvic tumors by virtue of the weak mutagenicity of phenacetin, or indirectly through local effects of analgesic-induced renal papillary scarring, is debated. Because phenacetin consumption ceased in New South Wales, Australia in 1975, cases of renal pelvic carcinoma seen 14–15 years later (many of which were associated with long-standing analgesic-induced renal papillary pathology) provided an opportunity to examine the temporal relation between phenacetin exposure and those histologic characteristics of the tumors and adjacent renal tissue that may implicate analgesics in their etiology. METHODS The authors conducted a “blinded” histopathologic review of tumors of the renal pelvis and adjacent noncancerous renal tissue from 100 cases for which epidemiologic data regarding risk factor exposure (specifically phenacetin-containing analgesics, tobacco, infection, and kidney stones) had been obtained in a population-based case-control study from New South Wales in 1989 and 1990. RESULTS A history of consumption of phenacetin-containing analgesics was associated strongly with the presence and severity of diffuse renal papillary scarring, and less strongly with papillary calcification. The histologic grade of the renal pelvic tumors tended to rise significantly with consumption of phenacetin-containing analgesics in a dose-dependent fashion and with the degree of papillary scarring, but was not related to smoking. In multivariate analysis it was the degree of papillary scarring (to a greater extent than the amount of phenacetin consumption) that was associated significantly and strongly with a higher histologic grade. Only diffuse papillary calcification was associated significantly with squamous change in the renal pelvic tumors. CONCLUSIONS Based on the results of the current study, the authors conclude that 1) in phenacetin-related tumors of the renal pelvis, the presence and severity of analgesic-induced renal papillary scarring correlates with tumor progression and 2) papillary calcification is a risk factor for squamous change in renal pelvic urothelioma. Cancer 1999;86:1576–82. © 1999 American Cancer Society.

Routinely collected data for New South Wales were used to analyse cancer mortality in migrants from the British Isles, southern Europe and eastern Europe according to duration of residence in Australia. A case-control approach compared deaths from cancer at one site with deaths from all other cancers, adjusting for age, sex and calendar period. Compared with the Australia-born, migrants had a significantly lower risk of dying from cancers of the mouth/pharynx and prostate (migrants from each region), colon/rectum (from the British Isles and southern Europe) and lung (female southern European migrants), evident from the time of migration and maintained for 30 years after migration. Whereas a deficit of deaths from colorectal cancer remained in migrants from southern Europe, a clear gradient of increasing risk with duration of stay in Australia was apparent. A similar trend was seen with respect to kidney cancer in southern European migrants. Persistent excess risks of death from stomach cancer were seen in all migrant groups, from lung cancer in British migrants and from liver cancer in southern and eastern European migrants. Although the risk of death from breast cancer increased significantly with duration in Australia in southern European migrants, the increase was not monotonic, as the relative risk in the first 10 years after migration was almost the same as that after more than 30 years. The pattern of risk for cancers of the prostate and mouth/pharynx suggests some protective role for inheritance or maintained cultural factors. Int. J. Cancer 83:179–185, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

To examine the use of mammographic screening in women in New South Wales (NSW), we measured uptake of initial mammograms and estimated the proportions of breast cancers that were screen detected. To see if mammographic screening has been associated with reductions in advanced breast cancers and mortality from breast cancer, we analyzed trends in age-specific and age-standardized breast cancer incidence and mortality from 1972 to 1995 and tumor size in 1986, 1989, 1992 and April to September 1995. Between 1984 and the end of 1995, an estimated 72% of NSW women in their 50s and 67% in their 60s had had at least 1 mammogram and, in 1995, an estimated 39% of invasive breast cancers in women in these age groups were detected by mammography. Before 1989, breast cancer incidence increased only slightly (+1.3% annually) but then, from 1990 to 1995, increased more rapidly (+3.1% annually). Between 1986 and 1995, rates of small cancers (

Breast cancer is more common in Maori than in non-Maori women under the age of 40 years and is equally common in older women, despite Maori being generally of lower socioeconomic status and having had a higher fertility rate than non-Maori.Data from a nationwide population-based case-control study of breast cancer in New Zealand women aged 25-54 years were used to compare the age-adjusted distribution of reproductive and other risk factors for breast cancer in self-identified Maori and non-Maori women from the control group. Separate analyses also were carried out for women aged 25-39 years and for those aged 40-54 years. The risk of breast cancer according to the proportion of Maori ancestry was estimated using multiple logistic regression simultaneously adjusting for several risk factors.Significant differences were found between self-identified Maori and non-Maori women in the age-adjusted frequencies for education level, socioeconomic status, age at first full-term pregnancy, parity, and duration of breastfeeding; the profile in all instances suggesting a lower risk of breast cancer for Maori than for non-Maori. There were no significant differences with respect to age at menarche, surgery for benign breast disease or a family history of breast cancer. Significantly more Maori than non-Maori were in the highest quartile of recent body mass index. Women self-identified as Maori has an approximately twofold higher risk of breast cancer than non-Maori women.Maori have high rates of breast cancer despite having a more favourable profile than non-Maori for most identified risk factors.National statistics collected in New Zealand since the mid-1960s have identified higher rates of breast cancer in Maori women under 40 years of age than their non-Maori counterparts, despite their low socioeconomic status and high fertility. Data from a nationwide population-based case-control study of breast cancer in New Zealand women 25-54 years of age were used to compare the age-adjusted distribution of reproductive and other risk factors for breast cancer in self-identified Maori (n = 89) and non-Maori women (n = 1771) from the control group. Compared with women with no Maori ancestors, women 25-39 years old with at least half Maori ancestry had a two-fold higher risk of breast cancer after adjustment for known risk factors (odds ratio, 2.2; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-4.2). However, when data from the control group were analyzed, Maori women had a significantly more favorable profile in terms of breast cancer risk than their non-Maori counterparts in terms of education level, socioeconomic status, age at first full-term pregnancy, parity, and duration of breast feeding. The only exception to this pattern was body mass index. 62.1% of Maori controls 25-54 years old, compared with 23.1% of their non-Maori counterparts, were in the highest quartile of recent body mass index (p 0.001). The excess of breast cancer in young Maori may reflect unknown genetic factors that increase susceptibility.

Objectives: Because the factors that influence risk of acral melanomas on the soles and palms in White populations are unknown, we investigated these in a multi-center case-control study.

BACKGROUND Women with breast carcinoma diagnosed before age 40 years have a greater prevalence of germline BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations than women with breast carcinoma diagnosed at older ages. Several recognizable histologic characteristics have been identified in breast carcinoma from studies of BRCA1/2 mutation carriers who belong to multiple-case families. The authors attempted to determine whether breast carcinoma occurring before age 40 years in BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation carriers who were not selected for family history could be distinguished histologically from one another and from breast carcinoma in women of a similar age without a germline BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. METHODS The study undertook a histologic assessment of breast carcinomas diagnosed before age 40 years identified from a population-based study. RESULTS Breast carcinoma in BRCA1 mutation carriers was associated with a distinct histologic appearance; these tumors were high grade, and had exceptionally high mean mitotic counts, a syncytial growth pattern, pushing margins, and confluent necrosis. Atypical medullary carcinoma was overrepresented in BRCA1 mutation carriers. All low grade tumors and tumors with low mitotic rates belonged to the group without BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. Pleomorphic lobular carcinomas and extensive intraduct carcinomas were more common in BRCA2 mutation carriers. CONCLUSIONS Breast carcinoma occurring in women with a germline BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation have recognizable histologic phenotypes, which may be useful in identifying individuals more likely to carry germline mutations. Histologic examination of breast carcinoma should become an important part of the evaluation of women seeking genetic testing for germline mutations in these breast carcinoma susceptibility genes. [See editorial on pages 2251-4, this issue.] Cancer 1998;83:2335-2345. © 1998 American Cancer Society.

Phenacetin abuse and smoking are established risk factors for transitional cell carcinomas of the urinary tract. In the present study, we analysed exposure and the clinical course of patients who underwent nephrectomy for transitional cell carcinoma of the renal pelvis. PCR-SSCP of archival, paraffin-embedded histological sections followed by direct DNA sequencing revealed that 29 of 89 (33%) renal pelvic carcinomas contained a p53 mutation. Double mutations were found in 4 tumours and triple mutations in 1 tumour. The incidence of p53 mutations was significantly higher in tumours with grades 3 and 4 than in those with grades 1 and 2 and higher in invasive than in non-invasive tumours. Furthermore, patients with carcinomas carrying a p53 mutation showed poorer survival than those without mutation. The type of p53 mutation in renal pelvic carcinomas was similar to that reported for bladder cancer, G:C-->A:T transition mutations being most frequent (45%, 33% of these at CpG sites), followed by G:C-->T:A and G:C-->C:G transversions. The incidence and type of p53 mutation did not differ significantly in patients with a history of phenacetin abuse, smoking or neither of these habits. This was also true for G:C-->T:A transversions (17.5% of mutations), which are considered typical of smoking-induced carcinomas at other sites, e.g., lung, oral cavity and oesophagus. Our results indicate that the frequency and pattern of p53 mutations are similar in transitional cell carcinomas of the bladder and the renal pelvis and do not reflect exposure to phenacetin and/or smoking. The frequency of genetic polymorphism in genes coding for carcinogen-metabolising enzymes (CYP1A1, NAT1, GSTT1 and GSTM1) was also independent of exposure. Although the sample size of our study does not allow definite conclusions, these data are compatible with chronic tissue damage as a causative factor in the evolution of urothelial carcinomas rather than pointing to a direct mutagenic effect of phenacetin and tobacco-specific carcinogens.

Objectives: A case-control-family study of breast cancer in women under the age of 40 was carried out in Melbourne and Sydney, Australia, from 1992 to 1995 to determine the risk factors for these women. Subjects included 467 incident cases identified by state cancer registries and 408 population-based controls. Methods: All participants completed a structured risk-factor questionnaire and family pedigree during an in-person interview. Where possible, cancers in first- and second-degree relatives were verified. Results: Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that the strongest risk factor for breast cancer was a family history of the disease - having at least one affected first-degree relative trebled the risk (relative risk [RR] = 3.3, 95 percent confidence interval [CI] = 1.9-5.8). Risk increased with height by three percent (standard error [SE] of one percent) per cm, and after adjusting for height, there was evidence for a decreased risk in women weighing 73 kg or more. There was an increased risk of breast cancer after the first full-term birth (RR = 1.8, CI = 1.0-3.5) but this risk fell by 30 percent (SE = 11 percent) with each subsequent livebirth. Conclusions: The effects of other reproductive factors and oral contraceptive use, although not nominally significant, were in accord with published findings from similar studies in young women. This study of Australian women has indicated that some risk factors for breast cancer in women under age 40 differ from those reported for older women either in direction (e.g., weight) or relative importance (e.g., family history).

A national population-based case-control study was used to assess the influence on breast cancer risk of a family history of the disease and the possibility of an interaction with reproductive risk factors. A total of 891 women aged 25-54 years with a first diagnosis of breast cancer and 1,864 control subjects randomly selected from the electoral rolls were interviewed. Age-adjusted relative risks (RR) of breast cancer were similar for mothers (RR = 2.3) and sisters (RR = 2.7) but somewhat higher for first-degree (RR = 2.6) than for second-degree (RR = 1.7) relatives. Cases reporting a first- or second-degree relative with breast cancer were no more likely to be diagnosed at an early age than those with no family history. With regard to the age at diagnosis of the relative, the RR was higher if breast cancer had been diagnosed before the age of 45 years than later; this was true for first-degree as well as for second-degree relatives. In women with no family history, the falling RRs with increasing age at menarche reflected the usual pattern, but no such trend was apparent in those reporting a mother or sister with breast cancer. For age at first full-term pregnancy, parity, breast-feeding, menopausal status, infertility, history of benign breast disease and body mass index, no evidence was seen of effect modification by a family history of breast cancer. Mothers of cases had about twice the cumulative rate of breast cancer as mothers of controls, a similar difference being seen between sisters of cases and sisters of controls.

A number of medical conditions have been linked with renal-cell cancer, although the evidence is not consistent in every case. In a large international case-control study of renal-cell cancer, we examined, among other hypotheses, associations with a personal history of certain medical conditions and a family history of cancer of the kidney or thyroid. Relative risks (RR), adjusted for the effects of age, gender, body-mass index, tobacco smoking and study centre, were significantly increased by a history of kidney stones or thyroid or kidney disease. The RR were not altered by additional adjustment for hypertension, or when diagnoses were restricted to those made at least 5 or 10 years before 1987 (the usual "cut-off" date). The link with kidney injury is particularly likely to be affected by recall bias. Increased RR of borderline significance were found for kidney infection (RR, 1.2) and diabetes (RR, 1.4). Having one first-degree relative with kidney cancer was associated with a significantly increased risk of renal-cell cancer (RR, 1.6; 95% Cl, 1.1-2.4). Seven cases reported 2 first-degree relatives with kidney cancer. No controls had first-degree relatives with kidney cancer. None of our participants reported having von Hippel-Lindau disease. The data suggests that a few conditions of the kidney are strongly associated with renal-cell cancer and that heredity plays a role in a small proportion of cases.

The relationships between reproductive factors, exogenous hormones and renal-cell cancer were examined in an international, multicenter, population-based, case-control study undertaken in 1989-1991. Data from 5 centers situated in Australia, Denmark, Germany, Sweden and the United States included for analysis 608 women with renal-cell cancer and 766 female controls. A significant trend in risk (p = 0.002) was associated with number of births, with an 80% excess risk for 6 or more births [RR = 1.8, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.1 to 2.9] compared with one birth. A decreasing risk was seen for increasing age at first birth, although this was confounded by body-mass index and number of births. A suggestive reduction of risk was also seen for increasing age at menarche. Age at menopause was unrelated to risk of renal-cell cancer. An increased risk was observed for women having had both a hysterectomy and an oophorectomy. Use of oral contraceptives in non-smoking women reduced the risk of renal-cell cancer (RR = 0.5, 95% CI = 0.4 to 0.8); this reduction increased with longer duration of use. No association was observed for estrogen replacement therapy. Our results indicate that certain hormonal and reproductive variables may be related to risk of renal-cell cancer and deserve further investigation, both epidemiologically and experimentally. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Cancer incidence during 1972-90 in Asian migrants to New South Wales, Australia, is described. Overall cancer incidence was lower than in the Australia born in most migrant groups, and this reached significance in migrants born in China/Taiwan, the Philippines, Vietnam and India/Sri Lanka, and in male migrants born in Indonesia. For the majority of cancers, rates were more similar to those in the Australia born than to those in the countries of birth. For cancers of the breast, colorectum and prostate, rates were relatively low in the countries of birth, but migrants generally exhibited rates nearer those of the Australia born. For cancers of the liver and cervix and, in India/Sri Lanka-born migrants, of the oral cavity, incidence was relatively high in the countries of birth but tended to be lower, nearer Australia-born rates, in the migrants. For these cancers, environmental factors related to the migrant's adopted country, and migrant selection, appeared to have a major effect on the risk of cancer. For certain other cancers, incidence was more similar to that in the countries of birth. Nasopharyngeal cancer, and lung cancer in females, had high rates in both the countries of birth and in migrants to Australia. Nasopharyngeal cancer rates were highest in China/Taiwan and Hong Kong-born migrants, and were also significantly high in migrants from Malaysia/Singapore, Vietnam and the Philippines. Rates of lung cancer were significantly high in women born in China/Taiwan, and the excess was greater for adenocarcinoma than for squamous cell carcinoma. Melanoma had low rates in both the migrants and in the countries of birth. For these cancers, it was probable that genetic factors, or environmental factors acting prior to migration, were important in causation.

There has been concern about the role of analgesics in the development of renal-cell cancer, although a few studies have reported moderately elevated risks with regular or long-term use. In a large international case-control study of renal-cell cancer we examined, among other hypotheses, the effect of phenacetin-containing and of other types of analgesics: paracetamol (acetaminophen), salicylates (mainly aspirin) and pyrazolones (e.g., antipyrine or phenazone). Relative risks, adjusted for the effects of age, sex, body-mass index, tobacco smoking and study centre, were not significantly increased with intake of phenacetin, either when lifetime consumption was categorized at the level ofor = 0.1 kg or when subjects were subdivided further by amount. Nor were paracetamol, salicylates or pyrazolones linked with renal-cell cancer. No consistently increasing risks with consumption level was found. The lack of association was not altered by restricting analgesic use to that which occurred 5 or 10 years before the defined "cut-off" date or when analysis was restricted to exclusive users of a particular type of analgesic. Neither was the risk influenced by the rate of consumption or whether the consumption had occurred at a young age. Our study provides clear evidence that aspirin is unrelated to renal-cell cancer risk, and our findings do not support the hypothesis that analgesics containing phenacetin or paracetamol increase the risk, although the number of "regular" users and the amount of these types of analgesic consumed were too small to confidently rule out a minor carcinogenic effect of phenacetin and paracetamol.

The relationship between renal-cell cancer (RCC) and tobacco use was investigated in an international, multicenter, population-based case-control study. Coordinated studies were conducted in Australia, Denmark, Germany, Sweden and the United States using a shared protocol and questionnaire. A total of 1,732 cases (1,050 men, 682 women) and 2,309 controls (1,429 men, 880 women) were interviewed for the study. No association was observed between risk and use of cigars, pipes or smokeless tobacco. A statistically significant association was observed for cigarette smoking, with current smokers having a 40% increase in risk [relative risk (RR) = 1.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2-1.7]. Risk increased with intensity (number of cigarettes) and duration (years smoked). Among current smokers the RR for pack-years rose from 1.1 (95% CI 0.8-1.5) for15.9 pack years to 2.0 (95% CI 1.6-2.7) for42 pack years (p for trend0.001). Long-term quitters (15 years) experienced a reduction in risk of about 15-25% relative to current smokers. Those who started smoking late (24 years of age) had about two-thirds the risk of those who started young (or = 12 years of age). Overall, the findings of this pooled analysis confirm that cigarette smoking is a causal factor in the etiology of RCC.

Data over at least 20 years from three large population-based registries in Europe and Australasia have been used to assess the risk of second primary tumours occurring after a cancer of the mouth or pharynx. These patients have previously been shown in clinical series to be at a particularly high risk of subsequent tumours, while data from cancer registries have shown conflicting results on the magnitude of the risk. In this study, patients were found to have between a 2-fold (Scotland and New South Wales) and 4-fold (Slovenia) increase in risk of a subsequent tumour over that in the population, although the actual risk in each centre was similar (between 2.8 and 3.1 per 100 person years). The risk remained for 10 years after diagnosis of the original tumour and was primarily in the upper aero-digestive tract. The most elevated risks (approximately 10-fold) were for tumours in the oral cavity and oesophagus. These data provide higher estimates of risk than previously reported from European cancer registries for second primary tumours and emphasize the need for close follow-up of patients who may represent an appropriate population in which to assess possible new chemopreventive agents.

The incidence of cancer in migrants to New South Wales (NSW) from Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey has been compared with that in the Australian-born population using data from the NSW Central Cancer Registry for 1972-91. Age-standardized incidence rates showed overall cancer incidence to be less common in migrants from each Middle Eastern country than in the Australian-born. There was a clear pattern of generally low rates for cancers of the mouth and pharynx, esophagus, colon and rectum, lung (men only), ovary, prostate and testis, and melanoma. Cancers which tended to be more common in migrants were nasopharynx, stomach (women only), liver (men only), gallbladder (chiefly in women), bladder (men only), and thyroid. Breast cancer did not show a uniform pattern among migrant groups, rates being high in the Egyptian-born but low in Lebanese-born women. The overall low incidence of cancers related to tobacco and alcohol, and to a 'high fat, low fiber' diet, emphasizes the potential role of preventable lifestyle factors in the burden of cancer in Australia.

Genome wide association studies have identified several single nucleotide polymorphisms ( SNPs) that are independently associated with small increments in risk of prostate cancer, opening up the possibility for using such variants in risk prediction. Using segregation analysis of population-based samples of 4,390 families of prostate cancer patients from the UK and Australia, and assuming all familial aggregation has genetic causes, we previously found that the best model for the genetic susceptibility to prostate cancer was a mixed model of inheritance that included both a recessive major gene component and a polygenic component (P) that represents the effect of a large number of genetic variants each of small effect, where P similar to N(0, sigma(2)(P)). Based on published studies of 26 SNPs that are currently known to be associated with prostate cancer, we have extended our model to incorporate these SNPs by decomposing the polygenic component into two parts: a polygenic component due to the known susceptibility SNPs, P(K) similar to N(0, sigma(2)(K)), and the residual polygenic component due to the postulated but as yet unknown genetic variants, P(U) similar to N(0, sigma(2)(U)). The resulting algorithm can be used for predicting the probability of developing prostate cancer in the future based on both SNP profiles and explicit family history information. This approach can be applied to other diseases for which population-based family data and established risk variants exist. Genet. Epidemiol. 35: 549-556, 2011. (C) 2011Wiley-Liss, Inc.

A retrospective cohort study was performed in 1063 women diagnosed with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 3 (CIN3) (previously termed carcinoma in situ- CIS) in the National Women's Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand. The study describes the clinical management and outcomes for women with CIN3 diagnosed in the decade of 1965-1974, when treatment with curative intent was withheld in an unethical clinical study of the natural history of CIS. A comparison is made with women who were diagnosed earlier (1955-1964) and later (1975-1976).The aim of the study is to record the medical encounters, frequency and management of cytological abnormalities and the occurrence of invasive cancers. The medical records, cytology and histopathology were reviewed and data linked with cancer and death registers.Women diagnosed with CIN3 in 1965-1974 (n = 422), compared with those diagnosed earlier (n = 385) or later (n = 256): (i) were less likely to have initial treatment with curative intent (51% vs 95 and 85%, respectively); (ii) had more follow-up biopsies (P0.0005); (iii) were more likely to have positive cytology during follow-up (P0.005) and positive smears that were not followed within six months by a treatment with curative intent (P0.005); and (iv) experienced a higher risk of cancer of the cervix or vaginal vault (RR = 3.3 compared with the first period, 95% CI: 1.7-5.3). Among women diagnosed in 1965-1974, those initially managed by punch or wedge biopsy alone had a cancer risk ten times (95% CI: 3.9-25.7) higher than women initially treated with curative intent.During the 'clinical study' (1965-1974), women underwent numerous interventions that were aimed to observe rather than treat their condition, and their risk of cancer was substantially increased.

Melanoma incidence is increased after organ transplantation, but there is uncertainty as to why this occurs. Diagnoses of invasive melanoma were ascertained in 8,152 kidney transplant recipients (1982-2003) by linking national Australian population-based registers, the Australia and New Zealand Dialysis and Transplant Registry, and the Australian National Cancer Statistics Clearing House. Incidence rate ratios (IRR) and standardized incidence ratios were used to compare melanoma risk during periods of transplant function and failure. Standardized incidence ratios were also computed by time since transplantation. Risk factors were examined using multivariate Poisson regression. Linkage identified 82 melanomas (134/100,000 person-years). Incidence was lower after resumption of dialysis and reduction of immune suppression than during transplant function [IRR, 0.09; 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 0.01-0.66]. During first transplant function, melanoma (n = 74) relative risk peaked in the second year and declined linearly thereafter (P trend = 0.03). During first transplant function, risk was positively associated with increasing year of age (IRR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.03-1.07) and receipt of lymphocyte-depleting antibody (IRR, 1.73; 95% CI, 1.05-2.84). Female sex (IRR, 0.57; 95% CI, 0.35-0.94), non-Caucasian race (IRR, 0.15; 95% CI, 0.02-1.05), and increasing time since transplantation (P trend = 0.06) were inversely associated with risk. The incidence pattern and risk factor profile for melanoma after transplantation strongly suggest that the current receipt, intensity, and possibly the recency of iatrogenic immunosuppression increase melanoma risk. Melanoma risk was also associated with proxy indicators of high personal sun exposure and sensitivity. These findings show the marked influence of immunologic control over melanoma incidence. (Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009;18(8):2297–303)

Background After transplantation, cancer risk varies from no increase for several common cancers to a many-fold increase for a number of, chiefly virus-associated, cancers. The smaller excess of cancer in dialysis has been less well described, but two studies suggested that impaired immunity might be responsible. Methods In a population-based cohort study of 28 855 patients who received renal replacement therapy (RRT), we categorized incident cancers as end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) related, immune deficiency related, not related to immune deficiency, or of uncertain status, according to whether they were, or were not, increased in published reports of cancer in ESKD prior to starting RRT, organ transplantation or human immunodeficiency virus infection. Standardized incidence ratios for, and excess burdens of, cancer were calculated for all persons normally resident in Australia starting treatment by dialysis or renal transplantation from 1982 to 2003. Results The risk for ESKD-related cancers was increased 4-fold in dialysis and during transplant function. For immune deficiency-related cancers, the increase was 1.5 (95% CI 1.3-1.6) times in dialysis, and 5-fold after transplantation. ESKD- or immune deficiency-related cancers contributed to approximately 90% of the excess burden of cancer, 48% and 36%, respectively, in dialysis, and 10% and 78% after transplantation. The remaining excess malignancy was contributed by cancers whose relationship with ESKD and immune deficiency is not yet certain. Conclusions In RRT, the increase in cancer is restricted, largely if not wholly, to cancers with origins in ESKD or related to immune deficiency. For the former, the cancer risk is similar in dialysis and transplantation, but for immune deficiency-related cancers, the relative risk is much greater after transplantation.

Maternal dietary data from an international collaborative case-control study on childhood brain tumors were used to evaluate associations between histology-specific risk and consumption of specific food groups during pregnancy.Nine study centers from seven countries contributed 1218 cases and 2223 controls. Most cases were diagnosed between 1982 and 1992 and ranged in age from 0 to 19 years. Dietary consumption was measured as average grams per day.Foods generally associated with increased risk were cured meats, eggs/dairy, and oil products; foods generally associated with decreased risk were yellow-orange vegetables, fresh fish, and grains. The cured meat association was specific to astrocytomas (odds ratio [OR] range=1.8-2.5 across astrocytoma subtypes for 4th vs. 1st quartile of consumption, p trendsor= 0.03) and ependymomas (OR, 2.0; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.4-2.9 for 4th vs. 1(st) quartile; p trend=0.03) and was similar in magnitude to previously reported ORs relating maternal cured meat consumption to increased astroglial risk. Other histology-specific associations were decreased risk of anaplastic astrocytomas from cruciferous vegetables (OR, 0.4; 95% CI, 0.3-0.7 for 4th vs. 1st quartile; p trend0.0001), decreased risk of astroglial tumors from fresh fish (OR, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.5-0.9 for 4th vs. 1st quartile; p trend=0.008), and increased risk of medulloblastoma from oil products (OR, 1.5; 95% CI, 1.0-2.2 for 4th vs. 1(st) quartile; p trend=0.005).These results suggest the need for dietary analysis not only by brain tumor histology, but also by specific foods within a broad food group.

Incidence of lip cancer is markedly increased after kidney transplantation. Immunosuppression and other risk factors for lip cancer were investigated in a population-based, nationwide cohort of 8,162 kidney transplant recipients registered on the Australia and New Zealand Dialysis and Transplant Registry (1982-2003). Lip cancer diagnoses were ascertained using probabilistic data linkage with the Australian National Cancer Statistics Clearing House. Standardized incidence ratios were used to compare lip cancer risk by subsite of lip and during periods of transplant function and failure. Risk factors during the first functioning transplant were examined using multivariate Poisson regression. Lip cancer was diagnosed in 203 patients. All cases were of squamous cell origin and mostly (77%) affected the lower vermillion. Cases occurred predominantly during periods of transplant function, with incidence decreasing to pretransplantation level on transplant failure and cessation of immunosuppression. During transplant function, cancer of the lower vermillion was associated with increasing year of age [incidence rate ratio (IRR), 1.03; 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 1.02-1.05], greater time since transplantation (P < 0.001), smoking (IRR, 2.13; 95% CI, 1.12-4.07), and current use of azathioprine (IRR, 2.67; 95% CI, 1.39-5.15) or cyclosporine (IRR, 1.63; 95% CI, 1.00-2.65). Female sex (IRR, 0.29; 95% CI, 0.18-0.46) and non-Australian/New Zealand country of birth (P = 0.006), surrogate indices of reduced exposure to solar UV radiation, were significantly protective. Lip cancer after transplantation is strongly related to the current receipt of immunosuppression. During transplant function, lip cancer risk is associated with the duration of immunosuppression, receipt of specific immunosuppressive agents, and UV exposure. (Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009;18(2):561–9)

Familial aggregation of prostate cancer is likely to be due to multiple susceptibility loci, perhaps acting in conjunction with shared lifestyle risk factors. Models that assume a single mode of inheritance may be unrealistic. We analyzed genetic models of susceptibility to prostate cancer using segregation analysis of occurrence in families ascertained through population-based series totaling 4390 incident cases. We investigated major gene models (dominant, recessive, general, X-linked), polygenic models, and mixed models of susceptibility using the pedigree analysis software MENDEL. The hypergeometric model was used to approximate polygenic inheritance. The best-fitting model for the familial aggregation of prostate cancer was the mixed recessive model. The frequency of the susceptibility allele in the population was estimated to be 0.15 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.11-0.20), with a relative risk for homozygote carriers of 94 (95% Cl 46-192), and a polygenic standard deviation of 2.01 (95% Cl 1.72-2.34). These analyses suggest that one or more genes having a strong recessively inherited effect on risk, as well as a number of genes with variants having small multiplicative effects on risk, may account for the genetic susceptibility to prostate cancer. The recessive component would predict the observed higher familial risk for siblings of cases than for fathers, but this could also be due to other factors such as shared lifestyle by siblings, targeted screening effects, and/or non-additive effects of one or more genes. Genet. Epidemiol. 34:42-50, 2010. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

In 1972, cancer registration began in New South Wales (NSW), the most populous state in Australia. The operations of the Registry are described. By 1990, approximately 316 000 new cases of cancer had been notified from a population that had increased from 4.6 to 5.8 million. In 1981–1984, the most common sites in men were lung, prostate, colon, melanoma and bladder, and in women, breast, melanoma, colon, lung and unknown primary site. Cancers which, between 1973–1976 and 1981–1984, had increased in reported incidence by more than 25% were pharynx and kidney in both sexes, rectum, testis and melanoma in men, and lung and bladder in women; those decreasing by more than 10% were stomach in both sexes, oesophagus in men and cervix in women. Age-standardised incidence rates for melanoma (27.4 [m] and 23.8 [f] per 100 000 in 1987) and cancer of the renal pelvis in women (1.7 per 100 000 in 1989) are among the highest in the world.