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The Icelandic mantle contains a range of lithologies associated with the depleted upper mantle, a mantle plume, and recycled oceanic lithosphere but the precise nature of depleted and enriched components in the mantle and their relative contributions to melt production remain poorly constrained. In this study, we collect new olivine- and plagioclase-hosted melt inclusion data and compile this with existing literature data to investigate the relative contributions from different mantle lithologies to basaltic magmas erupted in Icelandic flank zones and neovolcanic zones by modelling the melting of a heterogeneous mantle and subsequent mixing of derived melts. We find that observed melt inclusion compositions from off-axis flank zones are best explained as homogenized mixtures of pyroxenite- and lherzolite-derived melts produced at depths around 80-93 km, by which point lherzolite has only experienced a low degree of melting whereas the pyroxenite lithology has melted extensively. These melts represent the onset of channelization in the mantle and are transported rapidly to the surface without input from shallower melts. Melt compositions from the on-axis neovolcanic zones and off-axis Öræfajökull, are produced by mixing this deep melt component with higher degree lherzolite melts produced at shallower depths, between 57-93 km. Proportions of shallow lherzolite-derived melts and deep homogenized melt vary, but the lowest contribution from the deep homogenized melt is seen in the Northern Volcanic Zone. Ourresults support a model whereby deep melts mix until melt channelization starts in the mantle, after which binary mixing between the homogenized deep melt and shallower fractional melts occurs.

The timescales of magmatic processes within a volcanic system may be variable over a volcano’s geological history. Crystals reflect environmental perturbations under which they grew, and compositional gradients quenched inside crystals on eruption can be exploited to extract timescales of magmatic processes. Here, we use multi-element diffusion chronometry in olivine macrocrysts to recover their residence time in a melt that ultimately erupted at the surface. The macrocrysts were mobilized by the carrier melt from mushy layers in the magma reservoir, and diffusion timescales likely reflect the time interval between mush disaggregation, ascent, and eruption. To unravel the evolution of mush disaggregation timescales with time, we target early-Holocene, middle-Holocene, and historical magmatic units erupted in the Bárðarbunga-Veiðivötn volcanic system in Iceland’s Eastern Volcanic Zone. Macrocryst contents vary between samples; early-Holocene samples are highly phyric (10–45 vol% macrocrysts) and contain gabbroic nodules, whereas middle-Holocene (5–15 vol%) and historical units (5–10 vol%) tend to be generally less phyric. Early-Holocene olivine macrocrysts have core compositions in the range Fo84–87, while middle-Holocene and historical samples record a wider range in core compositions from Fo80 to Fo86.5. Olivine rims are in chemical equilibrium with their carrier liquid and are slightly more evolved in early-Holocene units (Fo76–81) compared to middle-Holocene (Fo78–80) and historical (Fo81–83) units. Diffusion chronometry reveals that the timescale between mush dis-aggregation and eruption has changed over time, with timescales getting shorter approaching recent times. Early-Holocene olivine macrocrysts dominantly record Fe-Mg diffusion timescales between 200–400 days, while middle-Holocene and historical units typically record timescales of about 70 and 60 days, respectively. Barometric studies suggest that melts and crystals are likely stored and gradually transferred throughout an interconnected multi-tiered system that ultimately culminates in a mid-crustal reservoir(s) at about 6.8–7.5 ± 2.5 km depth, where final disaggregation by the carrier liquid took place. We argue that, as a result of extensional processes enhanced by rifting events, well-mixed melts got drawn into mid-crustal reservoir(s), causing crystal mush loosening and mobilization. In addition, we propose that more energy in the form of heat and/or melt supply was required in the early-Holocene to break up the dense mush fabric and convert it into an eruptible magma. Conversely, as evidenced by the diverse macrocryst content of the historical units and by the lack of gabbroic nodules, the system has become characterized by a less compact mush fabric since at least the middle-Holocene, such that fresh injection of melt would easily loosen and mobilize the mush, resulting in an eruption within a couple of months. This study provides evidence that along axial rift settings, rifting-related processes can help to “pull the mush apart” with no requirement for primitive magma injection as an eruption trigger. Furthermore, we provide evidence that in the Bárðarbunga-Veiðivötn volcanic system specifically, the time between mush disaggregation and eruption has decreased considerably with time, indicating shorter warning times before imminent eruptions.

Trace element and volatile heterogeneity in the Earth's mantle is in uenced by the recycling of oceanic lithosphere through subduction. Oceanic island basalts commonly have high concentrations of volatiles compared to mid-ocean ridge basalts, but the extent to which this enrichment is linked to recycled mantle domains remains unclear. Boron is an ideal tracer of recycled subducted material, since only a small percentage of a recycled component is required to modify the bulk X11B of the source mantle. Boron isotopic compositions of primary melts thus have potential to trace the fate of recycled subducted material in the deep mantle, and to constrain the lengthscales of lithologic and compositional heterogeneities in diverse tectonic settings. We present new measurements of volatiles, light elements and boron isotopic ratios in basaltic glasses and melt inclusions that sample the mantle at two endmember spatial scales. Submarine glasses from the Reykjanes Ridge sample long-wavelength mantle heterogeneity on the broad scale of the Iceland plume. Crystal-hosted melt inclusions from the Askja and Barðarbunga volcanic systems in North Iceland sample short-wavelength mantle heterogeneity close to the plume centre. The Reykjanes Ridge glasses record only very weak along-ridgeenrichment in B content approaching Iceland, and there is no systematic variability in X11B along the entire ridge segment. These observations constrain ambient Reykjanes Ridge mantle to have a X11B of -6.1h (2SD=1.5h, 2SE=0.3h). The North Iceland melt inclusions have widely variable X11B between -20.7 and +0.6h. We screen melt inclusions against in uence from crustal contamination, identifying high [B] and low X18O as ngerprints of assimilation processes. Only the most primitive melt inclusions with MgO 8 wt.% reliably record mantle-derived X11B. In North Iceland, incompatible trace element (ITE)-depleted primitive melt inclusions from Holuhraun record a X11B of -10.6h, a signal that has also been seen in melt inclusions from southwest Iceland (Gurenko and Chaussidon, 1997). In contrast, primitive ITE-enriched melt inclusions from nearby Askja volcano record a X11B of -5.7h, overlapping with our new constraint on the X11B of Reykjanes Ridge mantle. Coupled [B], X11B and X18O signatures of more evolved melt inclusions from North Iceland are consistent with primary melts assimilating Ÿ5-20% of hydrothermally altered basaltic hyaloclastite as they ascend through the upper crust. Our data reveal the presence of a depleted, low-X11B and an enriched, higher-X11B mantle component, both intrinsic to the Icelandic mantle source and distinct from Reykjanes Ridge mantle. Non-modal melting calculations suggest that the enriched and depleted mantle components both contain 0.085 g/g B, slightly lower than the 0.10-0.11 g/g calculated for Reykjanes Ridge mantle. These data are consistent with the Icelandic mantle containing B-depleted dehydrated recycled oceanic lithosphere, in keeping with the low B/Pr of Icelandic melt inclusions in comparison to Reykjanes Ridge glasses or MORB. Our new data provide strong support for the role of recycled subducted lithosphere in melt generation at ocean islands, and highlight the need for careful screening of melt inclusion compositions in order to study global volatile recycling in ocean island basalts.

The mobility of basaltic magma within the Earth’s crust is controlled by magma viscosity. Crystallization and crystal morphology affect the viscosity, mobility and ultimately eruptibility of magma, by locking it at depth or enabling its ascent towards the surface. However, relationships between crystallinity, rheology and eruptibility remain uncertain because of the challenges associated with documenting magma crystallization in real time. Here we show, for the first time, the results of in situ 3D time-dependent, high temperature experiments performed under water-saturated conditions to investigate crystallization kinetics in a basaltic magma at crustal pressure. This new 4D approach provides unique quantitative information on the growth kinetics and textural evolution of pyroxene crystallization in basaltic magmas, quantifying dendritic growth on initially euhedral cores and revealing surprisingly rapid increases in crystal fraction and aspect ratio at undercoolings ≥30 °C. Such crystallization favours a rheological transition from Newtonian to non-Newtonian behaviour within minutes. We applied a numerical model to quantify the effect of dendritic crystallization on basaltic dike propagation towards the surface. Modelling results show that dendritic crystallization can strongly affect magma rheology during magma ascent with important implications for the mobility of basaltic magmas within the crust.

Recent studies investigating magmatic volatile contents indicate widespread enrichment of carbon, sulfur, and halogens in ocean island basalts (OIBs). At El Hierro in the Western Canary Islands, magmas with exceptionally high CO2 and S contents have been erupting throughout the Holocene. High S content of up to 5200 ppm requires an oxidised mantle source, but estimates of initial magmatic oxygen fugacity (fO2) are sparse. Here, we present estimates of fO2 and magmatic temperature for El Hierro together with a global mantle potential temperature dataset to evaluate redox and temperature conditions in the early stages of melt evolution for volatile-rich OIBs. Oxygen fugacities calculated using vanadium partitioning between melt inclusions (MIs) and their olivine hosts are >FMQ + 2.9 (2.9 log10 units above the fayalite-magnetite-quartz buffer), indicating that El Hierro magmas are highly oxidised. MI and matrix glass sulfur speciation data record fO2 between FMQ-1 to FMQ + 2; these values strongly depend on the position of the S2− to S6+ transition relative to the FMQ buffer. Nonetheless, glass sulfur speciation data record lower oxygen fugacity than V partitioning data, indicating MIs were able to maintain Fe3+/ΣFe and S6+/ΣS equilibrium with the surrounding melt during their evolution. The high fO2 of El Hierro magmas is coupled with an average mantle potential temperature estimate of 1443 ± 66°C (1σ, n = 17) for the broader Canary Islands, which is slightly higher than the average potential temperature estimated for adjacent mid-ocean ridge segments (1427 ± 33°C, 1σ, n = 474), albeit the two values are well within error. We find that ~98% of Canary Island rock compositions are not suitable for calculation of mantle potential temperatures using currently available methods. This is caused by the presence of substantial pyroxenite and volatile-enriched peridotite mantle domains under the Canary Islands. A wider compositional calibration of various petrological models is necessary to precisely determine mantle potential temperatures for volatile-rich alkali basalts. Our high oxygen fugacity estimates for El Hierro magmas reflect the fertile, fusible, and volatile-enriched nature of the mantle source beneath the Western Canary Islands.

Sulfur isotope ratios are among the most commonly studied isotope systems in geochemistry. While sulfur isotope ratio analyses of materials such as bulk rock samples, gases, and sulfide grains are routinely carried out, in-situ analyses of silicate glasses such as those formed in magmatic systems are relatively scarce in the literature. Despite a number of attempts in recent years to analyse sulfur isotope ratios in volcanic and experimental glasses by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), the effects of instrumental mass fractionation (IMF) during analysis remain poorly understood. In this study we use more than 600 sulfur isotope analyses of nine different glasses to characterise the matrix effects that arise during sulfur isotope analysis of glasses by SIMS. Samples were characterised for major element composition, sulfur content, and sulfur isotope ratios by independent methods. Our glasses contain between 500 and 3400 ppm sulfur and cover a wide compositional range, including low-silica basanite, rhyolite, and phonolite, allowing us to investigate composition-dependent IMF. We use SIMS in multi-collection mode with a Faraday cup/electron multiplier detector configuration to achieve uncertainty of 0.3‰ to 2‰ (2σ) on measured δ34S. At high sulfur content, the analytical error of our SIMS analyses is similar to that of bulk analytical methods, such as gas-source isotope ratio mass spectrometry. We find IMF causes an offset of −12‰ to +1‰ between bulk sulfur isotope ratios and those measured by SIMS. Instrumental mass fractionation correlates non-linearly with glass sulfur contents and with a multivariate regression model combining glass Al, Na, and K contents. Both ln(S) and Al-Na-K models are capable of predicting IMF with good accuracy: 84% (ln(S)) and 87% (Al-Na-K) of our analyses can be reproduced within 2σ combined analytical uncertainty after a correction for composition-dependent IMF is applied. The process driving IMF is challenging to identify. The non-linear correlation between glass S content and IMF in our dataset resembles previously documented correlation between glass H2O abundance and IMF during D/H ratio analyses by SIMS, and could be attributed to changes in 32S− and 34S− ion yields with changing S content and glass composition. However, a clear correlation between S ion yields and S content cannot be identified in our dataset. We speculate that accumulation of alkalis at the SIMS crater floor may be the principal driving force of composition-dependent IMF. Nonetheless, other currently unknown factors could also influence IMF observed during S isotope ratio analyses of glasses by SIMS. Our results demonstrate that the use of multiple, well-characterised standards with a wide compositional range is required to calibrate SIMS instruments prior to sulfur isotope analyses of unknown silicate glasses. Matrix effects related to glass Al-Na-K contents are of particular importance for felsic systems, where alkali and aluminium contents can vary considerably more than in mafic magmas.

Mineral-hosted melt inclusions have become an important source of information on magmatic processes. As the number of melt inclusion studies increases, so does the need to establish recommended practice guidelines for collecting and reporting melt inclusion data. These guidelines are intended to ensure certain quality criteria are met and to achieve consistency among published melt inclusion data in order to maximize their utility in the future. Indeed, with the improvement of analytical techniques, new processes affecting melt inclusions are identified. It is thus critical to be able to reprocess any previously published data, such that reporting the raw data is one of the first “recommended practices” for authors and a publication-criteria that reviewers should be sensitive to. Our guidelines start with melt inclusion selection, which is a critical first step, and then continue on to melt inclusion preparation and analysis, covering the entire field of methods applicable to melt inclusions. Dedication In March of 2000, a melt inclusion workshop was held at the Chateau de Sassenage in Grenoble and a companion issue of Chemical Geology entitled “Melt Inclusions at the Millennium” was published. Erik Hauri was heavily involved with the meeting and contributed two landmark papers to the topical issue of Chemical Geology on the use of secondary ion mass spectrometry to analyze volatiles in melt inclusions. When the melt inclusion community re-convened at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) in August of 2018, we were saddened that Erik was unable to join us due to his failing health. Less than a month later came the devastating news of his passing at only 52 years of age. In recognition of his incredible contributions to science in general and to the in situ analysis of melt inclusions in particular, the participants and organizers of the WHOI melt inclusion workshop dedicate this collegial paper to Erik Hauri, our colleague, mentor and friend. Thank you Erik.

Metamorphic rocks on the Moon are an important yet under-studied suite of lunar lithologies that have been identified in the Apollo and lunar meteorite collections [1]. These rocks, with granoblastic textures, are generally referred to as granulites; however, unlike their terrestrial counterparts, they are considered to represent the products of only high-temperature (> 1000 oC) thermal metamorphism that completely re-crystallised their protolith(s). Lunar granulites are commonly sub-divided into two main compositional groups related to their protolith lithologies. The Fe-granulites, found at most Apollo landing sites, are generally accepted to derive from metamorphosed plagioclase-rich igneous cumulates, termed the ferroan anorthosite (FAN) suite. The FAN suite are important lithologies as they represent products of the primary lunar crust. The Mg-granulites are found mostly at the Apollo 16 landing site and within lunar meteorite samples; the protolith(s) of this latter group is not well understood [2]. Early studies have linked the protolith to secondary magmatic intrusions into the primary anorthositic crust (termed the Mg-suite); however, recent studies have tentatively connected the protolith to a Mg-rich variation of the primary crustal plagioclase cumulates (termed the MAN suite). The occurrence of MANs is controversial, it is unclear how the MAN suite fits into canonical lunar crustal formation models [3]. To investigate the protoliths of the granulite suites, we report in situ trace- and minor-element abundances for olivine and pyroxene grains within Fe- and Mg-granulites, determined by LA-ICP-MS and EPMA respectively. Trace-element data presented here indicate that the Mg-granulites are compositionally similar to the MAN suite. Furthermore, by comparing plagioclase trace-element data with peak metamorphic temperatures (calculated using two-pyroxene thermometers [4]), we find no relationship between metamorphic temperature and diagnostic trace-element signatures suggesting that both granulite suites experienced similar thermal metamorphic conditions. Additionally, we estimate the duration of metamorphic heating using experimentally derived diffusion rates of minor elements in minerals, (such as Ca in olivine [5]). Both the calculated cooling rates and peak metamorphic temperatures can set constraints on the metamorphic heat source responsible for thermally annealing the Fe- and Mg-granulites. Specifically, we are able to assess whether the granulites formed as a result of shallow ( 1km) contact metamorphism of the protolith due to the emplacement of magma chambers or upwelling plutons within the lunar crust [7]. [1] Lindstrom & Lindstrom, 1986, JGR, 91(B4), 263-276 [2] Treiman et al. 2010. MaPS, 45, 163-180. [3] Gross et al. 2014, EPSL, 388, 318-328. [4] Brey & Köhler, 1990, J Pet, 31, 1353-1378. [5] Dohmen et al, 2007, PCM, 34, 389-407. [6] Cushing et al. 1999, MaPS, 34, 185-195. [7] Hudgins et al. 2011, Am Min, 96, 1673-1685.

Basaltic volcanoes exhibit a wide range of eruptive styles, from relatively gentle effusive eruptions (producing lava flows and lava domes) to highly explosive activity (where pyroclastic materials are ejected from the vent as a jet or plume). The difference between explosive and effusive eruptions is dictated by the ability of magma to fragment during ascent. For lava fountains the distinction is unclear, as the liquid phase in the rising magma may remain continuous to the vent, fragment in the fountain, then re-weld on deposition to feed rheomorphic lava flows.Here we use a magma ascent model to constrain the controls on basaltic eruption style, using Kilauea and Etna as case studies. Following our results, we suggest that lava fountaining is a distinct style, separate from effusive and explosive eruption styles, that is produced when magma ascends quickly and fragments above the vent, rather than within the conduit. Performing sensitivity analyses of Kilauea and Etna case studies we found that high lava fountains (> 50 m high) occur when the Reynolds number of the bubbly magma is greater than ~0.1, the bulk viscosity is less than 106 Pa s, and the gas is well-coupled to the melt. According to our results, explosive eruptions (Plinian and sub-Plinian) are expected over a wide region of parameter space for higher viscosity basalts, typical of Etna, but over a much narrower region of parameter space for lower viscosity basalts, typical of Kilauea. Numerical simulations indicate also that the magma that feeds high lava fountains ascends more quickly than the magma that feeds explosive eruptions, thanks to its lower viscosity. For the Kilauea case study, a decreasing ascent velocity is expected to produce a progressive evolution from high to weak fountaining, to ultimate effusion. For the Etna case study, instead, small changes in parameter values lead to transitions to and from explosive activity, indicating that eruption transitions may occur with little warning.

Crystallisation is a complex process that significantly affects the rheology of magma, and thus the flow dynamics during a volcanic eruption. For example, the evolution of crystal fraction, size and shape has a strong impact on the surface crust formation of a lava flow, and accessing such information is essential for accurate modelling of lava flow dynamics. To investigate the role of crystallisation kinetics on lava flow behaviour, we performed real-time, in situ synchrotron X-ray microtomography, studying the influence of temperature-time paths on the nucleation and growth of clinopyroxene and plagioclase in an oxidised, nominally anhydrous basaltic magma. Crystallisation experiments were performed at atmospheric pressure in air and temperatures from 1250 °C to 1100 °C, using a bespoke high-temperature resistance furnace. Depending on the cooling regime (single step versus continuous), two different crystal phases (either clinopyroxene or plagioclase) were produced, and we quantified their growth from both global and individual 3D texture analyses. The textural evolution of charges suggests that suppression of crystal nucleation is due to changes in the melt composition with increasing undercooling and time. Using existing viscosity models, we inferred the effect of crystals on the viscosity evolution of our crystal-bearing samples to trace changes in rheological behaviour during lava emplacement. We observe that under continuous cooling, both the onsets of the pāhoehoe-‘a‘ā transition and of non-Newtonian behaviour occur within a shorter time frame. With varying both temperature and time, we also either reproduced or approached the clinopyroxene and plagioclase phenocryst abundances and compositions of the Etna lava used as starting material, demonstrating that real-time synchrotron X-ray tomography is an ideal approach to unravel the final solidification history of basaltic lavas. This imaging technology has indeed the potential to provide input into lava flow models and hence our ability to forecast volcanic hazards.

Crystal size distribution analysis is a non-destructive, quantitative method providing insights into the crystallization histories of magmas. Traditional crystal size distribution data collection requires the manual tracing of crystal boundaries within a sample from a digital image. Although this manual method requires minimal equipment to perform, the process is often time-intensive. In this study we investigate the feasibility of using the Quantitative Evaluation of Minerals by SCANing electron microscopy (QEMSCAN) software for semi-automated crystal size distribution analysis. Four Apollo 15 mare basalt thin sections were analysed using both manual and QEMSCAN crystal size distribution data collection methods. In most cases we observe an offset between the crystal size distribution plots produced by QEMSCAN methods compared with the manual data, leading to differences in calculated crystal residence times and nucleation densities. The source of the discrepancy is two-fold: (1) the touching particles processor in the QEMSCAN software is prone to segmenting overlapping elongate crystals into multiple smaller crystals; (2) this segmentation of elongate crystals causes estimates of true 3D crystal habit to vary between QEMSCAN and manual data. The reliability of the QESMCAN data appears to be a function of the crystal texture and average crystal shape, both of which influence the performance of the touching particles processor. Despite these limitations, QEMSCAN is able to produce broadly similar overall trends in crystal size distribution plots to the manual approach, in a considerably shorter time frame. If an accurate crystal size distribution is required to calculate crystal residence time or nucleation density, we recommend that QEMSCAN should only be used after careful consideration of the suitability of the sample texture and average crystal shape.

Plinian eruptions are the most hazardous yet enigmatic style of volcanism at basaltic systems. The low viscosity of basaltic magma should preclude its fragmentation; however, there are several recognised examples of basaltic Plinian activity. Historical eruptions of Masaya caldera, Nicaragua; Etna, Italy (122 BC); and Tarawera, New Zealand (1886) have ejected > 1 km3 of material. The Las Sierras-Masaya volcanic complex (Masaya caldera) has produced several basaltic Plinian eruptions, yet currently exhibits low explosive-effusive activity. This volcano has erupted chemically homogeneous magmas over at least the past 6000 years, which suggests that this significant difference in eruptive style is not attributable to a compositional change. Therefore, the cause of increased explosivity at Masaya caldera remains uncertain. We present new measurements of major, trace and volatile elements in basaltic Plinian eruption products from the Fontana Lapilli (60 ka) and Masaya Triple Layer (2.1 ka) eruptions of the Las Sierras- Masaya volcanic complex. We use our data in rheological and thermometric models to define the pre- and syn-eruptive conditions that favour highly explosive activity. We then combine our petrological data with a numerical conduit model to constrain the pre-eruptive condition of the magma reservoir and simulate the conduit processes, to understand the magmatic conditions that promote fragmentation during magma ascent. The common physico-chemical magmatic conditions that promote basaltic Plinian activity at Masaya are high microlite crystallinity, moderate storage temperatures and a low initial H2O concentration. Our combined approach greatly improves our general understanding of explosive basaltic activity and provides new insight into the effusive-explosive transition of the highly hazardous Las Sierras-Masaya system.

Basaltic eruptions are the most common form of volcanism on Earth and planetary bodies. The low viscosity of basaltic magmas generally favours effusive and mildly explosive volcanic activity. Highly explosive basaltic eruptions occur less frequently and their eruption mechanism still remains subject to debate, with implications for the significant hazard associated with explosive basaltic volcanism. Particularly, highly explosive eruptions require magma fragmentation, yet it is unclear how basaltic magmas can reach the fragmentation threshold.In volcanic conduits, the crystallisation kinetics of an ascending magma are driven by degassing and cooling. So far, the crystallisation kinetics of magmas have been estimated through ex situ crystallization experiments. However, this experimental approach induces underestimation of crystallization kinetics in silicate melts. The crystallization experiments reported in this study were performed in situ at Diamond Light Source (experiment EE12392 at the I12 beamline), Harwell, UK, using basalt from the 2001 Etna eruption as the starting material. We combined a bespoke high-temperature environmental cell with fast synchrotron X-ray microtomography to image the evolution of crystallization in real time. After 4 hours at sub-liquidus conditions (1170 °C and 1150 °C) the system was perturbed through a rapid cooling (0.4 °C/s), inducing a sudden increase of undercooling. Our study reports the first in situ observation of exceptionally rapid plagioclase and clinopyroxene crystallisation in trachybasaltic magmas. We combine these constraints on crystallisation kinetics and viscosity evolution with a numerical conduit model to show that exceptionally rapid syn-eruptive crystallisation is the fundamental process required to trigger basaltic magma fragmentation under high strain rates. Our in situ experimental and natural observations combined with a numerical conduit model allow us to conclude that pre-eruptive temperatures

The depth(s) of magma storage reservoirs beneath active volcanic regions may change with time. Determining the rates and causes of millennial-scale changes in magmatic system architecture is critical for the development of realistic time-integrated models of crustal evolution. Here we examine a suite of samples from the exceptionally well-exposed Bárðarbunga-Veiðivötn volcanic system in central Iceland in order to resolve the temporal evolution of magma storage conditions within one of Iceland’s most productive volcanic systems. We have measured the major and minor elemental composition of glass, mineral and melt inclusion from five erupted units that span a full glacial cycle, from a 500 μm), polymineralic clots and high-crystallinity nodules, consistent with derivation from crystal mush bodies. Macrocryst rims are in chemical equilibrium with their respective carrier melts, while macrocrysts cores are too primitive to have crystallized from these melts. Each sample records a distinct range of macrocryst compositions, indicating that the composition and/or eruptibility of stored crystal mush has changed with time. Macrocrysts from the oldest units are the most primitive, and the macrocryst compositional range becomes wider and, on average, more evolved, with time. Clinopyroxene-melt and melt-based (OPAM) geobarometers reveal temporally invariant crystallization conditions of 1.9–2.2 ± 0.7 (1σ) kbar pressure, corresponding to depths around 6.8–7.8 ± 2.5 km. All the samples also contain melt inclusions trapped at mid-crustal pressures of ∼2.6 kbar (9.6 km). In addition, melt inclusions hosted in most primitive olivines and plagioclases from subglacial and early Holocene eruptions preserve evidence of crystallization in a lower-crustal storage level(s) located at 17.5 km (4.9 kbar). This petrological record of deep crystallization may be linked to a surge in eruption rates, tapping of lower-crustal magma reservoirs, consistent with a crustal response associated with postglacial isostatic rebound. In contrast, the absence of a deep crystallization signature in the younger eruptive units may reflect lower magma production rates under steady-state conditions of the crust, and new magma pathways favouring melt storage in the mid-crust.

Basaltic volcanism contributes significant fluxes of volatiles (CO2, H2O, S, F, Cl) to the Earth’s surface environment. Quantifying volatile fluxes requires initial melt volatile concentrations to be determined, which can be accessed through crystal-hosted melt inclusions. However, melt inclusions in volatile-rich mafic alkaline basalts, such as those erupted at ocean islands, often trap partially degassed melts, meaning that magmatic volatile fluxes from these tectonic settings are often significantly underestimated. We have measured major, trace element and volatile concentrations in melt inclusions from a series of young ( 20 ka) basanites from El Hierro, Canary Islands. Our melt inclusions show some of the highest CO2 (up to 3600 ppm) and S (up to 4290 ppm) concentrations measured in ocean island basalts to date, in agreement with data from the recent 2011–2012 eruption. Volatile enrichment is observed in melt inclusions with crystallisation-controlled major element compositions and highly variable trace element ratios such as La/Yb. We use volatile-trace element ratios to calculate original magmatic CO2 contents up to 4.2 wt%, which indicates at least 65% of the original CO2 was degassed prior to melt inclusion trapping. The trace element contents and ratios of El Hierro magmas are best reproduced by 1–8% partial melting of a garnet lherzolite mantle source. Our projected CO2 (200–680 ppm) and S (265–450 ppm) concentrations for the source are consistent with upper estimates for primitive mantle. However, El Hierro magmas have elevated F/Nd and F/Cl in comparison with melts from a primitive mantle, indicating that the mantle must also contain a component enriched in F and other volatiles, most probably recycled oceanic lithosphere. Our modelled original magmatic CO2 contents indicates that, per mass unit, volatile fluxes from El Hierro magmas are up to two orders of magnitude greater than from typical mid-ocean ridge basalts and 1.5–7 times greater than from recent Icelandic eruptions, indicating large variability in the primary volatile content of magmas formed in different geodynamic settings, or even within different ocean islands. Our results highlight the importance of characterising mantle heterogeneity in order to accurately constrain both short- and long-term magmatic volatile emissions and fluxes from ocean island volcanoes.

Plinian-type eruptions are extremely hazardous, producing pyroclastic fallout and flows extending many kilometres from the vent. The most commonly invoked eruption trigger for Plinian-type eruptions is the intrusion of fresh magma, generally associated with precursory ground deformation and seismicity days/weeks before eruption. Closed-system internal triggering has also been proposed, such as protracted crystallisation of magma, which can produce a build-up of exsolved volatiles and thus pressurise the system prior to eruption. On 22–23 April 2015 Calbuco volcano, Chile, produced a sub-Plinian eruption with 2O) and formed phenocrysts of titanomagnetite, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene and plagioclase cores (An78–93). Gradual cooling of the magma chamber produced thermal gradients and magma convection, evidenced by plagioclase overgrowth rims (An58–77) and blocky microlites (25–250 μm). Our interpretation is that this continuing crystallisation induced second boiling and an over-pressurisation of the system, leading to the rapid onset of the 2015 eruption. Petrological and geochemical evidence therefore shows that a closed-system magma chamber can evolve into a highly explosive eruption with very little precursory warning, posing a challenge for current volcano monitoring paradigms. We propose that internal triggering should be carefully considered as a mechanism for unexpected sub-Plinian eruptions, prompting a potential revision of existing hazard management strategies.

Basaltic eruptions are the most common form of volcanism on Earth and planetary bodies. The low viscosity of basaltic magmas inhibits fragmentation, which favours effusive and lava-fountaining activity, yet highly explosive, hazardous basaltic eruptions occur. The processes that promote fragmentation of basaltic magma remain unclear and are subject to debate. Here we used a numerical conduit model to show that a rapid magma ascent during explosive eruptions produces a large undercooling. In situ experiments revealed that undercooling drives exceptionally rapid (in minutes) crystallization, which induces a step change in viscosity that triggers magma fragmentation. The experimentally produced textures are consistent with basaltic Plinian eruption products. We applied a numerical model to investigate basaltic magma fragmentation over a wide parameter space and found that all basaltic volcanoes have the potential to produce highly explosive eruptions. The critical requirements are initial magma temperatures lower than 1,100 °C to reach a syn-eruptive crystal content of over 30 vol%, and thus a magma viscosity around 105 Pa s, which our results suggest is the minimum viscosity required for the fragmentation of fast ascending basaltic magmas. These temperature, crystal content and viscosity requirements reveal how typically effusive basaltic volcanoes can produce unexpected highly explosive and hazardous eruptions. Volcanoes that typically erupt effusively can generate highly explosive eruptions of basaltic lava under specific temperature and viscosity conditions, suggest crystallization experiments combined with numerical models of magma fragmentation.

The mass of volatiles emitted during volcanic eruptions is often estimated by comparing the volatile contents of undegassed melt inclusions, trapped in crystals at an early stage of magmatic evolution, with that of the degassed matrix glass. Here we present detailed characterisation of magmatic volatiles (H2O, CO2, S, Fl and Cl) of crystal-hosted melt and fluid inclusions from the 2014–2015 Holuhraun eruption of the Barðarbunga volcanic system, Iceland. Based on the ratios of magmatic volatiles to similarly incompatible trace elements, the undegassed primary volatile contents of the Holuhraun parental melt are estimated at 1500–1700 ppm CO2, 0.13–0.16 wt% H2O, 60–80 ppm Cl, 130–240 ppm F and 500–800 ppm S. High-density fluid inclusions indicate onset of crystallisation at pressures ≥ 0.4 GPa (~ 12 km depth) promoting deep degassing of CO2. Prior to the onset of degassing, the melt CO2 content may have reached 3000–4000 ppm, with the total magmatic CO2 budget estimated at 23–55 Mt. SO2 release commenced at 0.12 GPa (~ 3.6 km depth), eventually leading to entrapment of SO2 vapour in low-density fluid inclusions. We calculate the syn-eruptive volatile release as 22.2 Mt of magmatic H2O, 5.9–7.7 Mt CO2, and 11.3 Mt of SO2 over the course of the eruption; F and Cl release were insignificant. Melt inclusion constraints on syn-eruptive volatile release are similar to estimates made during in situ field monitoring, with the exception of H2O, where field measurements may be heavily biased by the incorporation of meteoric water.

International audience; Aerosols have a potentially large effect on climate, particularly through their interactions with clouds, but the magnitude of this effect is highly uncertain. Large volcanic eruptions produce sulfur dioxide, which in turn produces aerosols; these eruptions thus represent a natural experiment through which to quantify aerosol-cloud interactions. Here we show that the massive 2014-2015 fissure eruption in Holuhraun, Iceland, reduced the size of liquid cloud droplets—consistent with expectations—but had no discernible effect on other cloud properties. The reduction in droplet size led to cloud brightening and global-mean radiative forcing of around -0.2 watts per square metre for September to October 2014. Changes in cloud amount or cloud liquid water path, however, were undetectable, indicating that these indirect effects, and cloud systems in general, are well buffered against aerosol changes. This result will reduce uncertainties in future climate projections, because we are now able to reject results from climate models with an excessive liquid-water-path response.

Silicate melt inclusions (MI) commonly provide the best record of pre-eruptive H2O and CO2 contents of subvolcanic melts, but the concentrations of CO2 and H2O in the melt (glass) phase within MI can be modified by partitioning into a vapor bubble after trapping. Melt inclusions may also enclose vapor bubbles together with the melt (i.e., heterogeneous entrapment), affecting the bulk volatile composition of the MI, and its post-entrapment evolution. In this study, we use numerical modeling to examine the systematics of post-entrapment volatile evolution within MI containing various proportions of trapped vapor from zero to 95 volume percent. Modeling indicates that inclusions that trap only a vapor-saturated melt exhibit significant decrease in CO2 and moderate increase in H2O concentrations in the melt upon nucleation and growth of a vapor bubble. In contrast, inclusions that trap melt plus vapor exhibit subdued CO2 depletion at equivalent conditions. In the extreme case of inclusions that trap mostly the vapor phase (i.e., CO2–H2O fluid inclusions containing trapped melt), degassing of CO2 from the melt is negligible. In the latter scenario, the large fraction of vapor enclosed in the MI during trapping essentially serves as a buffer, preventing post-entrapment modification of volatile concentrations in the melt. Hence, the glass phase within such heterogeneously entrapped, vapor-rich MI records the volatile concentrations of the melt at the time of trapping. These numerical modeling results suggest that heterogeneously entrapped MI containing large vapor bubbles represent amenable samples for constraining pre-eruptive volatile concentrations of subvolcanic melts.

Publisher's version (útgefin grein), The 2014–2015 Holuhraun eruption, on the Bárðarbunga volcanic system in central Iceland, was one of the best-monitored basaltic fissure eruptions that has ever occurred, and presents a unique opportunity to link petrological and geochemical data with geophysical observations during a major rifting episode. We present major and trace element analyses of melt inclusions and matrix glasses from a suite of ten samples collected over the course of the Holuhraun eruption. The diversity of trace element ratios such as La/Yb in Holuhraun melt inclusions reveals that the magma evolved via concurrent mixing and crystallization of diverse primary melts in the mid-crust. Using olivine–plagioclase–augite–melt (OPAM) barometry, we calculate that the Holuhraun carrier melt equilibrated at 2.1±0.7 kbar (7.5±2.5 km), which is in agreement with the depths of earthquakes (6±1 km) between Bárðarbunga central volcano and the eruption site in the days preceding eruption onset. Using the same approach, melt inclusions equilibrated at pressures between 0.5 and 8.0 kbar, with the most probable pressure being 3.2 kbar. Diffusion chronometry reveals minimum residence timescales of 1–12 days for melt inclusionbearing macrocrysts in the Holuhraun carrier melt. By combining timescales of diffusive dehydration of melt inclusions with the calculated pressure of H2O saturation for the Holuhraun magma, we calculate indicative magma ascent rates of 0.12–0.29 m s−1. Our petrological and geochemical data are consistent with lateral magma transport from Bárðarbunga volcano to the eruption site in a shallow- to mid-crustal dyke, as has been suggested on the basis of seismic and geodetic datasets. This result is a significant step forward in reconciling petrological and geophysical interpretations of magma transport during volcano-tectonic episodes, and provides a critical framework for the interpretation of premonitory seismic and geodetic data in volcanically active regions., This work was supported by Natural Environment Research Council grants [NE/M021130/1] and [IMF548/1114]. DAN acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.

Primitive melt inclusions trapped during the earliest stages of fractional crystallisation are able to preserve oxygen isotope ratios inherited from mantle-derived melts. However, assimilation of low-δ18O hydrothermally altered crustal material and mixing with magmas held in shallow reservoirs may exert a strong control on the δ18O of melt inclusions trapped during later stages of crystallisation. Oxygen isotope ratios in olivine- and plagioclase-hosted melt inclusions and glasses from tephra samples collected from the Askja central volcano and Askja volcanic system indicate significant differences in the mechanisms of magma supply and storage between the northern and southern segments of the Askja volcanic system. Melt inclusions from the Holuhraun fissure eruption, ∼20 km south of Askja, mostly preserve δ18O signatures of +4.1‰ to +5.4‰, suggesting that this magma underwent minimal modification by magma mixing or crustal assimilation prior to its eruption. By contrast, melt inclusions and glasses from the Nýjahraun fissure eruption, ∼60 km north of Askja, have δ18O between +3.1‰ and +4.0‰. These relatively evolved melt inclusions (∼3.9–4.3 wt.% MgO) were probably trapped during late-stage fractional crystallisation in a shallow magma storage zone. Melt inclusions from two phreatomagmatic tuff sequences within the Askja caldera have δ18O between +2.1‰ and +5.2‰, and this variability cannot be explained by mixing with low-δ18O rhyolitic or andesitic contaminants in the upper crust. Instead, mixing of the ascending magmas with hydrated, low-δ18O basaltic magmas is invoked, thus acquiring a low δ18O signature with minimal modification to the magma’s bulk composition. Such magma bodies are likely to be found throughout the upper 11 km of the crust beneath Askja. Assimilation of low-δ18O meta-basalt in the upper crust is also likely to affect the δ18O of ascending magmas.

Access to the Edinburgh Ion Microprobe Facility was funded by NERC grant IMF386/1109. MEH was supported by NERC studentship NE/F008929/1.

Zidovudine (AZT) lowers the perinatal transmission of HIV but can impair mitochondrial function by depleting mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). AZT therapy and perinatal nutritional deprivation affect the body fat distribution, which influences glucose tolerance. We sought to model intrauterine exposure to AZT in humans to determine whether it interacts with low-protein diet (LPD) to impact on birth weight and glucose homeostasis in the offspring. Pregnant dams and their offspring were given AZT, an LPD, or AZT and an LPD (LPD + AZT). AZT reduced mtDNA copy number in liver and birth weight in the offspring and increased their fasting glucose and insulin ( P = 0.021, 0.03, 0.001, and 0.011 respectively) at 6–8 wk of age. LPD decreased litter size and birth weight ( P = 0.01 and 0.012). In the LPD + AZT group, birth weight and litter size were reduced compared with untreated controls, and fasting blood glucose and insulin were raised. There was a significant interaction between LPD and AZT on fasting insulin levels ( P = 0.025). Islet size was not significantly affected, but the mean β-cell area/islet was reduced in the LPD + AZT group compared with controls ( P < 0.05). Early exposure to AZT interacts with LPD to impair fetal development in this model. This combination appeared to impair the supply of insulin and, hence, glucose homeostasis, perhaps as a result of impaired mitochondrial function. Although it is not certain that this can be extrapolated to humans, maternal nutritional deprivation combined with AIDS therapy could influence both birth weight and onset of diabetes.

Temporal variations in magma discharge rates on Iceland’s neovolcanic rift zones have been associated with deglaciation. We have used tephrochronological and stratigraphic dating of 175 separate eruptive units to estimate volumetric output and reconstruct eruption rates in the Askja region over the postglacial period. We have identified 14 tephra layers that can be used as time marker horizons in the near vicinity of Askja, including the Vatnaoldur (871 ± 2 AD) tephra which has not previously been reported in surface cover profiles in this region. Our improved tephrochronological resolution indicates that, over the past c. 1,500 years, Askja has been significantly more active than has previously been recognised. A minimum of 39 km3 of basaltic magma has been erupted at Askja since the area became ice-free at around 10.3 ka. The absence of the 7.2 ka Hekla 5 tephra from the Askja region suggests that all postglacial lavas now exposed at the surface are younger than 7.2 ka. Time-averaged magma discharge rates at Askja were highest between 7.2 and 4.3 ka. However, the available tephrochronological resolution is not sufficient to resolve any peak in volcanic activity following deglaciation.

Petrological constraints on the timescales of pre-eruptive crystal storage and magma degassing provide an important framework for the interpretation of seismic, geodetic and gas monitoring data in volcanically active regions. We have used Fe–Mg diffusion chronometry in 86 olivine macrocrysts from the AD 1783–1784 Laki eruption on Iceland's Eastern Volcanic Zone to characterise timescales of crystal storage and transport in the lead-up to this eruption. The majority of these olivines have core compositions of Fo < 76, and rim compositions in the range Fo69–Fo74 that are close to equilibrium with the Laki melt. Diffusion modelling using the greyscale intensity of backscattered electron images as a proxy for olivine composition reveals that the most probable Fe–Mg diffusion timescale for Laki olivines is 7.8 days, which reflects the characteristic olivine residence time in the carrier melt prior to eruption. A small population of Fo > 81 olivines record Fe–Mg diffusion timescales of ∼124 days; these crystals are likely to have formed in mid-crustal magma chambers, been transferred to storage at shallower levels and then entrained into the Laki melt prior to eruption. Typical Fe–Mg diffusion timescales of 6–10 days are shorter than the average time interval between discrete episodes of the Laki eruption, indicating variable or pulsed disaggregation of stored crystals into the carrier liquid prior to the onset of each episode. The diffusion timescales coincide with historical accounts of strong and frequent earthquakes in southeast Iceland, which we interpret as being associated with mush disaggregation related to melt withdrawal and the initiation of dyke propagation from a crustal magma reservoir at ∼6 ± 3 km depth to the surface. We calculate pre-eruptive CO2 fluxes of 2–6 Mt d−1, assuming a pre-eruptive CO2 outgassing budget of 189.6 Mt for the Laki eruption and a constant rate of CO2 release in the 6–10 days preceding each eruptive episode. Our dataset indicates that petrological constraints on the timescales of magmatic processes occurring in the days leading up to historic eruptions may enhance our ability to forecast the onset of future large eruptions, both in Iceland and further afield.

Significant instrumental mass fractionation (IMF) occurs during measurements of oxygen isotope ratios in magmatic glasses by SIMS. In order to characterise and correct for this fractionation, we measured oxygen isotope ratios in a range of international and internal glass standards ranging in composition from basalt (47 wt.% SiO2) to rhyolite (72 wt.% SiO2) and with known major element compositions. Oxygen isotope ratios were determined by laser fluorination at SUERC, East Kilbride, or taken from previously published values. A total of 1105 δ18O measurements were made over nine sessions on a Cameca IMS-1270 ion microprobe at the University of Edinburgh. SIMS measurements on glass standards had external precision better than ± 0.36‰ (1σ), and the reference material analysed alongside the unknown samples, USGS synthetic glass GSA-1G, had an average external precision of ± 0.14‰. The selected standards are thus sufficiently homogeneous in δ18O to be suitable calibration standards. In terms of δ18O, the SIMS measurements show that, within a single session, IMF may vary by up to 4.7‰ from one glass standard to another. IMF is strongly correlated with SiO2 and CaO. A least squares regression calculation was used to explore potential univariate and multivariate correction schemes. For each correction scheme, the correction coefficients determined for each session were then used to calculate the IMF and correct the measured isotopic ratio of each glass standard. A univariate correction scheme using only SiO2 to correct for IMF reproduced 75% of the glass standards to within ± 0.2‰ of their true δ18O, and 95% to within ± 0.4‰. Bivariate correction schemes using SiO2–CaO and FeO–CaO produced similar results, but did not significantly improve on the SiO2 correction. The correction schemes were applied to δ18O measurements made on melt inclusions and glasses from the Askja volcanic system, North Iceland. The uni- and bivariate correction schemes tested produced δ18O values within the published range for Icelandic basalts. We recommend a simple correction scheme based on the SiO2 content of appropriate standards, which should span a suitable compositional range from basalt to rhyolite.

The Oskjuvatn caldera at Askja volcano, North Iceland, was formed as a result of an explosive eruption at Askja on 28th–29th March 1875. Oskjuvatn is one of the youngest collapse calderas on Earth, and its initiation and growth were observed and documented by explorers and geologists working in the Askja region between 1875 and 1932. It is an example of caldera formation where the volume of the caldera collapse far exceeds the volume of associated erupted products. The discrepancy between the collapse volume and associated erupted products has been used by previous workers as a justification for the hypothesis that the injection of lateral dykes from Askja fed the February to October 1875 Nýjahraun fissure eruptions at the Sveinagja graben, some 60 km north of Askja. However, historical accounts documenting the caldera formation in sufficient detail show clearly that Oskjuvatn formed by piecemeal collapse, taking over 40 years to reach its current form. We use these accounts to undertake a detailed examination of the stages of caldera collapse and to compare them with the known magmatic output of Askja in the years following the 1875 eruption. ArcGIS software was used to calculate the volume of Oskjuvatn during the various stages of collapse, and the volume of material erupted after 1875. While a dyke extending between Askja and Sveinagja may be implied to account for the ‘missing’ volume, our results demonstrate that the volume of Oskjuvatn in July 1875 closely corresponds to the volume of rhyolitic material erupted on 28th–29th March 1875. In addition, geochemical evidence indicates that the Nýjahraun magmas were sourced from a deeper reservoir rather than by lateral injection from Askja's shallow crustal magma chamber. We therefore suggest that the injection of sills and dykes in a coherent intrusion complex beneath Askja central volcano, combined with background deflation of the magma storage zone beneath Oskjuvatn caldera over 30 to 40 years following 1875, satisfactorily accommodates the volume required to form Oskjuvatn caldera.

This corrects the article DOI: 10.1038/nature22974.

International audience; The conventional view holds that the oxidation state of a mantle-derived degassed magma reflects its source. During magma ascent and degassing the oxidation state is thought to follow a redox buffer. While this view has been challenged by petrological data, geochemical models and volcanic gas measurements, the fingerprints of such redox changes and their driving forces have not hitherto been captured by an integrated study. Here, we track the redox evolution of an alkaline magmatic suite at Erebus volcano, Antarctica, from the mantle to the surface, using X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy at the iron and sulphur K-edges. We find that strong reduction of Fe and S dissolved in the melt accompanies magma ascent. Using a model of gas-melt chemical equilibria, we show that sulphur degassing is the driving force behind this evolutionary trend, which spans a wide compositional and depth range. Our results explain puzzling shifts in the oxidation state of gases emitted from Erebus volcano, and indicate that, where sulphur degassing occurs, the oxidation states of degassed volcanic rocks may not reflect their mantle source or co-eruptive gas phase. This calls for caution when inferring the oxidation state of the upper mantle from extrusive rocks and a possible re-assessment of the contribution of volcanic degassing to the early Earth's atmosphere and oceans. The relationship between magma redox conditions and pressure (depth) emphasises the value of measuring redox couples in gases emitted from volcanoes for the purposes of operational forecasting.