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Candida spp. isolated from both humans and animals have a similar genotype. Properties of Candida spp. specific for different host species have not been isolated, followed by studies indicating that animals can be a reservoir of these fungi for humans. Occupational exposure concerns workers who have direct contact with farm animals, i.e., farmers, breeders, veterinarians, farm technicians. Hand dermatitis and fungal infection may be caused by prolonged exposure to water and occlusive gloves. The risk of fungal infection is estimated to be high for seafood workers, florists, hairdressers, bakers and cooks, gastronomy workers and healthcare workers. Even though Candida spp. are effective as saprophytic, in the event of a weakening of the function or disturbance of homeostasis, the risk of developing an additional form of candidiasis is increasing due to the intensification of animal production, environmental changes and the excessive use of antibiotics to treat infections in humans and animals. Employers and workers should adopt appropriate strategies to reduce factors conductive to Candida spp. infection at professional work. Med Pr Work Health Saf. 2023;74(5):425–33.

Currently, among 36 species of the Vibrio genus, 12 are potentially pathogenic to humans. The purpose of this study is to present the properties and pathogenicity of the Vibrio bacilli. The Vibrio family are pathogenic to humans causing dangerous infectious diseases that may often be fatal in the absence of effective therapy, but are also an infectious agent among animals. The most characteristic representative of the Vibrionaceae family is the species Vibrio cholerae. There are two strains that disrupt the water and electrolyte balance in humans: V. cholerae O1 and V. cholerae O139. The V. cholerae O1 serotype has two biotypes: classical and El Tor. Three serotypes are distinguished in each biotype – Inaba, Ogawa and Hikojima. The El Tor biotype shows the ability to survive and colonize the human body, causing chronic carrier state. Infections caused by species other than V. cholerae are referred to by the prefix "non" or NAG (Non-AgglutinatinG-Vibrio) – V. cholerae non-O1 and V. cholerae non-O139. They are found in natural bodies of water, lakes, estuaries and marine waters. In Poland, V. cholerae non-O1 and V. cholerae non-O139 were confirmed in previous years in the Bug River, near the border with Ukraine, during the summer-autumn period.

Ticks and the pathogens they transmit are an ever-present global health problem. In Poland, the most common species of these arachnids are Ixodes ricinus (castor bean tick) and Dermacentor reticulatus (ornate cow tick). There are risks associated with the parasitic effects of ticks. During their feedings, they can have direct and indirect effects on the affected host. Both arthropod species are characterized by a large number of species of microorganisms they transmit causing bacterial, viral, and parasitic diseases. Bacterial infections are the most common among tick-borne diseases. These include Lyme disease, human granulocytic anaplasmosis, tularemia, and Q fever. An increasingly common clinical issue prompting the current research is co-infections, i.e. simultaneous infection of the host by several pathogens. An infection caused by multiple pathogens results in severe and atypical symptoms, prolonged duration of disease, as well as reduced response to treatment. Taking into account the ubiquity of ticks in the environment, only a thorough understanding of tick-borne diseases, including infectious agents and vectors, can lead to better control of this problem worldwide.

Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) caused by viruses are severe infectious diseases that lead to serious disturbances of the body’s homeostasis, in most cases accompanied by symptoms of hemorrhagic diathesis. They are spread by infection vectors such as insects (mosquitoes, ticks), airborne droplets or direct contact with contaminated material (blood, sweat, excrement, feces). There are four major groups of RNA viruses that cause hemorrhagic fevers – these include pathogens from the families Flaviviridae, Bunyaviridae, Arenaviridae and Filoviridae. Despite their common name, VHFs are distinct disease entities with different etiologies, clinical manifestations and routes of transmission. Although they have been known for several decades and are associated with illnesses in tropical countries, the risk of their occurrence, in times of globalization and widespread international travel, is increasingly high. It is not insignificant that progressive climate change is making vectors of VHFs, which years ago were seen only in tropical countries, increasingly common on the European continent and even in eastern European countries.

Over the last 30 years, the number of invasive turtle species living in the wild has significantly increased in Poland. This proliferation carries many threats, which mainly include the displacement of native species of animals from their natural habitats. Turtles can also be reservoirs for pathogens, including bacteria from the Mycobacterium genus. In order to confirm or rule out the presence of acid-fast mycobacteria in the population of invasive turtle species, samples from carapace, plastron, internal organs and mouth cavity swabs from 125 animals were tested. Twenty-eight mycobacterial strains were isolated in culture, which were classified as atypical following multiplex-PCR reactions. The GenoType Mycobacterium Common Mycobacteria (CM) test, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PRA)-hsp65 and DNA sequencing were used to identify the species of isolates. Of the 28 strains, 11 were identified as M. fortuitum, 10 as M. chelonae, 3 as M. avium ssp. avium, 2 as M. nonchromogenicum and 1 each of M. neoaurum and M. scrofulaceum. The results of the research will also strengthen the understanding that these animals can be vectors for pathogens when living in the wild.

Coronaviruses occurring in humans and animals are a diverse group of pathogens, characterized by high variability and tropism. The most serious animal diseases caused by coronaviruses include equine coronavirus disease (E-CoV), canine coronavirus disease (C-CoV), rabbit enteric coronavirus disease (Rb-CoV), infectious bronchitis in poultry (IB-CoV), epizootic catarrhal enteritis in ferrets, in pigs: transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus disease (TGE), human enteric coronavirus disease (HE-CoV), and porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED), in cattle (Bo-CoV): neonatal calf diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, winter dysentery in cattle, in cats: feline enteric coronavirus disease (FE-CoV) and feline infectious peritonitis (FIP-CoV). To date, three major epidemics causing severe respiratory diseases in humans (SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2) have been reported. Due to the high morbidity and mortality rate, coronavirus-induced diseases in animals result in serious economic losses. The current human COVID-19 pandemic demonstrates the need for action to modernize and improve diagnostics in this area, but also to develop innovative immunoprophylactic and therapeutic methods.

Lyme disease, as one of tick-borne diseases, has been a current epidemiological problem in Poland and in the world for several years. The proportion of borreliosis infections caused by B. burgdorferi spirochaetes is increasing. Difficulties diagnosing this disease with conventional methods have led to growing molecular biology research aimed at developing improved diagnostic tools. Molecular biology methods include all techniques that allow the detection and analysis of nucleic acids. Among them there are methods based on PCR reaction, molecular typing methods (MLST), new generation sequencing (NGS). The current development of this field gives great research opportunities. With regard to B. burgdorferi spirochete, molecular biology is used to: confirm Lyme borreliosis, identify and type Borreliella spirochetes, detect them in tick vectors or intermediate hosts, as well as to identify co-infections between different Borreliella species and other tick-borne pathogens. They are meant to significantly improve diagnostic analyzes. This paper reviews the current methods used for the detection and identification of B. burgdorferi. Molecular mechanisms for the survival of spirochetes in the host, infection vectors and clinical picture of Lyme disease were also discussed.

Background This study is aimed at evaluating the awareness among hunters and foresters concerning the activities undertaken for the prevention of Borrelia burgdorferi infections. Material and Methods The study group included 236 hunters from Poland and 339 foresters from Ukraine. The study was based on an original questionnaire including questions which concerned the applied methods of removing ticks attached to the skin, the kind of preventive measures undertaken to avoid tick bites, the evaluation of knowledge concerning the prevention of tick-borne diseases, as well as the participants’ willingness to be educated on this issue. Results Removing a tick with a pair of tweezers by a simple vertical move was more frequently practiced by the hunters (16.5%). Spreading an oily substance over a tick to make it go out on its own was more often applied by the foresters (18.8%). The occurrence of erythema migrans was more frequently reported by the foresters (47.2%). Among the persons declaring no knowledge of the prevention of tick-borne diseases, 77.8% of the hunters and 61.5% of the foresters were willing to gain such knowledge, and 11.1% of the hunters and 21.2% of the foresters did not want any education on this issue. The hunters more often than the foresters applied repellents and checked their body after returning from green areas. Conclusions Education is needed in certain groups undertaking hobby or vocational activities in forest areas of Poland and Ukraine. It seems reasonable to undertake research on the preferences concerning the choice of repellents among the groups at risk of tick bites. Med Pr. 2020;71(1):59–68

In the period 1996–2012, two outbreaks of animal tuberculosis were noted in the population of free-living European bison (Bison bonasus caucasicus) in the Bieszczady Mountains, Southern Poland. As the European bison is an endangered species and particularly susceptible to tuberculosis, not to mention a national icon, the decision was made to test all deceased bison for TB in Poland. The screened bison were obtained by elimination due to poor health or natural death. A total of 159 European bison have been examined over the last 10 years. The individuals came from four regions of Poland (Białowieża Forest, Bieszczady Mountains, Borecka Forest, Knyszyńska Forest), not only from the area where tuberculosis is still endemic. Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium avium spp. hominisuis were identified in two different herds. The isolation of M. bovis from European bison was the first case described in Poland. So far, the only causative agent of tuberculosis identified in European bison in Poland, both in the wild and in captive herds, was Mycobacterium caprae. The isolated M. bovis spoligotype has not previously been registered in international spoligotype databases so far. The obtained results highlight the need to monitor TB in European bison in Poland.

Introduction: Zoonoses have recently become an increasing public health problem. Zoonoses are estimated to account for 60% of all emerging infectious diseases. One particularly important zoonosis is human tuberculosis, especially tuberculosis due to Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis), which is naturally resistant to pyrazinamide (PZA). Material and Methods: The patient had a pulmonary form of tuberculosis accompanied by a cough and fever. At the same time, the disease was also confirmed in 20 out of 25 cattle on the farm. The clinical specimen (sputum) was examined in accordance with the European Union (EU) laboratories’ methodology. Tissue materials from cattle were verified in the National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), in the Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) Reference Laboratory, Pulawy, Poland and tested in accordance with the guidelines for the laboratory diagnosis of BTB. Results: All M. bovis isolates represented one spoligotype, SB0120. The results of mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit variable number tandem repeat (MIRU-VNTR) evaluation showed the same genetic pattern. Conclusions: Findings from this study suggest the first confirmed interspecific transmission of Mycobacterium bovis, between a farmer and his cattle, in Poland. Present findings support the increasing concern regarding zoonotic TB that has been highlighted elsewhere.

Introduction and objective Bovine tuberculosis (bTB, bovine TB) is caused by mycobacteria which are grouped within the MTBC. TB in animals is a highly infectious and progressive disease which can be transmitted to humans. Since 2009, Poland has gained official bTB-free status. Despite the official fact of bTB-free status, a dozen bTB outbreaks are still noted each year. Since 2000 in Poland, every year 1/5 of the national herd is subject to intradermal skin TB testing to control the bTB outbreaks in the cattle population. Application, with 5-year intervals between each government-funded skin test, undoubtedly resulted in financial savings. However it also seems to have caused several adverse and worrying events, e.g. an increase in the number of reactors detected and removed from a single tested herd. The objective of this study was the examination of 898 cattle imputed with bTB infection in Poland between 2008–2012. Material and methods The study concerned a potential epidemic outbreak with suspected bTB transmission. 20 cows came from 3 herds in the same county located in the same province in southern Poland. Results 134 MTBC strains were identified. In MIRU-VNTR, all isolates showed the same genetic pattern 322532243421232. Based on molecular investigation, the characteristics of M. bovis strains isolated from cattle from 3 different herds confirmed the common source of this zoonotic disease. Conclusions Although not bacteriologically proven, everything points to the fact that humans were the vector of bovine tuberculosis transmission between herds. This finding confirms transmission between 3 cattle herds in the Małopolskie Province in southern Poland (Podhale). The outbreak of tuberculosis in animals finally compromised public health.

Introduction: In spite of the restrictions associated with the sale of medicinal products over the past 8 years, the over-the-counter drug sales have nearly doubled. This is caused by a broad access to pharmaceuticals, abandonment of professional medical advice, and too many long queues to the general practitioner. Aim of the study: The aim of the study was to investigate the dependence in the use of over-the-counter analgesics among three age groups: students (generation I), their parents (generation II) and grandparents (generation III). Material and Methods: The research group consisted of 203 persons (150 women and 53 men) between 19 and 92 years of age (mean age: 48 years, SD: 22.18). The study used a diagnostic questionnaire based on the author’s questionnaire which asked the respondents about their health status and preferences in taking medicines. Results: The most commonly prescribed active ingredient for pain relievers in OTC drugs is ibuprofen (116 people - 65.91%). Then comes paracetamolum, which is chosen by 95 persons (53.98%). Acidum acetylsalicylicum attracts 58 people (32.95%). Less common are such substances as metamizol sodium, diclofenac and naproxenum. About 176 out of 203 respondents (86.70%) declare taking OTC painkillers “on their own”, 61 of them (85.92%) in generation I, 64 (90.14%) in generation II and 51 (83.61%) in generation III. Conclusions: The frequency of taking OTC painkillers in the members of particular generations of the family depends on their age. Older persons (15%) more often take analgesics several times a day. Only (1.4%) of the young do it. On the other hand, a considerably higher percentage of young people (75.7%) use such medications sporadically.

Brucellosis, mainly caused by Brucella (B.) melitensis, is associated with a risk of chronification and relapses. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) standards for B. melitensis are not available, and the agent is not yet listed in the EUCAST breakpoint tables. CLSI recommendations for B. melitensis exist, but they do not fulfill the requirements of the ISO 20776 standard regarding the culture medium and the incubation conditions. Under the third EU Health Programme, laboratories specializing in the diagnostics of highly pathogenic bacteria in their respective countries formed a working group within a Joint Action aiming to develop a suitable method for the AST of B. melitensis. Under the supervision of EUCAST representatives, this working group adapted the CLSI M45 document to the ISO 20776 standard after testing and validation. These adaptations included the comparison of various culture media, culture conditions and AST methods. A Standard Operation Procedure was derived and an interlaboratory validation was performed in order to evaluate the method. The results showed pros and cons for both of the two methods but also indicate that it is not necessary to abandon Mueller–Hinton without additives for the AST of B. melitensis.

The study aims at characterising four bacterial infectious agents listed on the CDC A list, i.e. Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis), plague (Yersinia pestis), botulism (Clostridium botulinum) and tularemia (Francisella tularensis) as potential tools used in a bioterrorist attack causing diseases. The paper also includes information on their occurrence in Poland and the EU. Despite the real threat of terrorism in the 21st century and large-scale activities aimed at limiting the occurrence of this phenomenon, it should be borne in mind that pathogens listed on the CDC list A, although spotted primarily in animals, can be a real threat to people’s health and life. Among the discussed microorganisms, only Francisella tularensis and Clostridium botulinum cause sporadic diseases in Poland; however, it should be remembered that both Bacillus anthracis, occurring in Europe, and Yersinia pestis, occurring in Asia and Africa, can pose real threats to human health and life not only in natural infections, but when used as a biological weapon.

Introduction Mycobacterial diseases of humans and animals can be caused by mycobacteria other than tuberculosis (MOTT). The transmission of the infection primarily occurs via the respiratory or oral routes, but also via a damaged skin barrier. MOTT have high resistance to external factors; therefore, infected, undiagnosed animals can pose a risk for public health. Case report The case study describes mycobacterial skin infection in a domestic cat. The correct diagnosis was reached four months after the appearance of the first clinical signs. Those were purulent, granulomatous lesions and fistulas, which could potentially act as a source of the infection for the owners and the veterinarian who cared for the animal. Conclusion Despite using advanced diagnostic techniques, establishing the final cause of the cat’s illness was a lengthy process. The skin lesions could contribute to the transmission of the bacteria in the environment. Non-targeted treatments could also cause antimicrobial resistance.

Introduction Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is an infectious disease that occurs in many species of both domestic and free-ranging animals, as well as animals kept in zoos. According to the Polish regulations, cattle tuberculosis are slaughtered and microbiological examinations are performed, the rest of animal species can be treated and laboratory diagnostics are not obligatory. Case report The presented case concerns two male giraffes which were purchased by the zoo and united with a third male. After a year, the oldest male died. Post mortem examinations confirmed generalized tuberculosis. After a further six months, the second male was euthanized after suffering great pain. The material for the study of drug resistance was a swab from the nose, obtained ante mortem from the third male. Attempted treatments did not produce the expected results. Genotyping allowed the exclusion of a common source of transmission. Conclusions The final effect of the anti-tuberculosis therapy in the male giraffe raises the question whether the research team should have undertaken the treatment of the animal with active tuberculosis.

The aim of our study was the collection of seroprevalence data for Toxoplasma gondii, Coxiella burnetii, Trichinella spp., and Francisella tularensis from hunters in Lublin Province. The antibodies against T. gondii and C. burnetii were recorded in 38.5% and 16.2% of the sera, respectively. 4.05% of the sera were seropositive for both T. gondii and C. burnetii. None of the sera tested reacted positively with F. tulariensis or Trichinella spp. Seroprevalence of T. gondii and C. burnetii is common among the hunters from Lublin Province. It seems reasonable to undertake similar research among hunters from other regions of eastern Poland.

The aim of the study was the analysis of the occurrence of specific antibodies against HEV among hunters and foresters who are at risk to be exposed. The study group consisted of 210 hunters (23–80 years old) and 60 foresters (22–64 years old). Anti-HEV IgG were present in 3.81% of the samples of the hunters and in 5% of the samples of the foresters. The statistical analysis shows no significant differences inthe results anti-HEV IgG between the groups of hunters and foresters (p = 0.5278). Significantly higher anti-HEV IgG titers were foundin the older age group (> 55 years old).