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Intensive economic development causes the risk of introducing the so-called emerging contaminants (EC) into the environment. This group of contaminants includes pharmaceuticals, including non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), the consumption of which is steadily increasing in Poland as well as worldwide. Such specific contaminants may also cause problems at the stage of biological treatment of wastewater, especially in individual systems that are sensitive to changes in wastewater composition. The study examined an onsite wastewater treatment system based on the activated sludge technology, to which three different pharmaceuticals were dosed in the quantities normally used in therapy. The operation of the biological reactor under these conditions was analysed by comparing contamination indicators at the inlet and outlet of the treatment plant at different doses of pharmaceuticals. It was found that the doses used did not significantly worsen the effects of wastewater treatment, except for paracetamol, which at a dose above 1000 mg/d caused a slight reduction in the efficiency of the facility. The dosed pharmaceuticals also did not deteriorate the sedimentation properties of the activated sludge. Although typical doses of pharmaceuticals do not interfere with the operation of the biological reactor, residual substances and their metabolites may be released into the environment; it is therefore reasonable to consider the introduction of an additional treatment stage to remove micropollutants from the wastewater.

This paper addresses several important problems and methods related to studies of inland waters based on the existing scientific literature. The use of UAVs in freshwater monitoring is described, including recent contact and non-contact solutions. Due to a decline in biological diversity in many parts of the globe, the main threats are described together with a modern method for algae and cyanobacteria monitoring utilizing chlorophyll a fluorescence. Observed disturbances in the functioning of river biocenoses related to mine waters’ discharge, causing changes in the physico-chemical parameters of waters and sediments, give rise to the need to develop more accurate methods for the assessment of this phenomenon. Important problems occurring in the context of microplastic detection, including the lack of unification, standardization and repeatability of the methods used, were described. In conclusion, accurate results in the monitoring of water quality parameters of inland waters can be achieved by combining modern methods and using non-contact solutions.

The article focuses on the analysis of the level of the socio-economic development of 239 NUTS-3 level subregions of Central-Eastern Europe based on 31 indicators categorised within the three subcomponents (factors) of the regional development: the natural environment, the human capital, as well as entrepreneurship and innovativeness. The purpose of the article is to specify the variation in the level of socio-economic development of the subregions within the arrangement of the NUTS-3 units. The level of socioeconomic development, as well as the level of the development of its factors, shall be presented based on a synthetic gauge exhibiting the taxonomic distance of a particular subregion from the established pattern of development. In the study, a hypothesis shall be verified according to which the socio-economic development of Central-Eastern European subregions is highly varied, and its highest level is registered in the subregions located around the capitals of the researched states.

The study was conducted on grass (Lolium perenne) grown on fine sand in pots to evaluate the effect of greywater reuse on total dry biomass of grass during 4 months. The experiment has been designed as full factorial with total water load: 15, 25, 35 and 45 mm·week-1. Three categories of irrigation water (tap water, treated greywater, raw greywater) were tested in conditional combination with two levels for each category that is the low and high level at 5 and 15 mm·week-1, respectively. The COD, BOD5, total nitrogen, total phosphorus is 247 ± 33 mg·dm-3, 81 ± 12 mg·dm-3, 7.2 ± 0.9 mg·dm-3, 4.7 ± 0.7 mg·dm-3 of raw greywater and 81 ± 12 mg·dm-3, 23 ± 6 mg·dm-3, 4.8 ± 0.9 mg·dm-3, 2 ± 0.2 mg·dm-3 of treated greywater, respectively. The results showed that the dry biomass yields increase when increasing total irrigation water dose from 15 to 45 mm·week-1. The dry biomass yields at 5 mm·week-1 share of tap water, treated greywater, or raw greywater in total irrigation water doses 15-45 mm·week-1 were equal to 40,5 ± 7,5, 39,1 ± 7,3, 42,8 ± 6,0 mg d.m. and at 15 mm·week-1 partial dose: 52,6 ± 7,8, 54,0 ± 7,5, 50,3 ± 9,2 mg d.m. per pot, respectively. The increase in dry biomass yield of grass irrigated with treated greywater (partial dose from 5 to 15 mm·week-1) was higher and more significant (p = 0.13, 0.06, 0.37) than in the two other cases. The study concludes that treated greywater, raw greywater can be a partial or complete replacement for tap water without compromising ryegrass biomass yield.

The purpose of the article is to specify the interdependencies between the absorption of EU funds and the changes in socio-economic development. The research was conducted on subregional level in three stages. At the first stage, the level of development of 380 districts in Poland was specified. At the second stage, the differentiation in EU fund absorption in those districts was shown. At the third stage, the interdependencies between the size of the absorption and the changes in the level of development in the arrangement of factors of the said development based on the analysis of regression was specified.

Contamination of the environment has been a growing problem in recent years. Due to the rapid growth in human population, the expansion of cities, along with the development of industry, more and more dangerous chemicals end up in the environment, especially in soil and water. For the most part, it is not possible to effectively remove chemicals through traditional remediation techniques, because those used in treatment plants are not specifically designed for this purpose. Therefore, new approaches for water remediation are in great demand. Many efforts have been focused on applications of photocatalysis for the remediation of chemical pollutants including drugs. Titanium(IV) oxide nanoparticles have particularly been considered as potential photocatalysts due to their favorable properties. In this article, we present the problem of emerging contaminants including drugs and discuss the use of photocatalysts based on titanium(IV) oxide nanoparticles for their degradation. A wide selection of materials, starting from bare TiO2, via its hybrid and composite materials, are discussed including those based on carbonaceous materials or connections with macrocyclic structures. Examples of photodegradation experiments on TiO2-based materials including those performed with various active pharmaceutical ingredients are also included.

The aim of the study was to verify two morphological forms (“angel hair” and “scraps”) of xylit as a trickling filter material. The study was carried out on two types of polluted media: septic tank effluent (STE) and seminatural greywater (GW). The basic wastewater quality indicators, namely, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), total suspended solids (TSS), ammonium nitrogen (NNH4), and total phosphorus (Ptot) were used as the indicators of treatment efficiency. Filtering columns filled with the investigated material acted as conventional trickling filters at a hydraulic load of 376–472 cm3/d during the preliminary stage, 198–245 cm3/d during stage I, and 184–223 cm3/d during stage II. The removal efficiency of the two morphological forms of xylit did not differ significantly. The average efficiencies of treatment were as follows: for COD, over 70, 80, and 85% for preliminary stage, stage I and stage II, respectively; for BOD5, 77–79% (preliminary stage); for TSS, 42% and 70% during the preliminary stage, and 88, 91, and 65% during stage I; for NNH4, 97–99% for stage I and 36–49% for stage II; for Ptot, 51–54% for stage I and 52–56% for stage II. The study demonstrated that xylit was a material highly effective in wastewater quality indicators removal, even during the initial period of its use.

This paper presents simulations of water seepage within and under the embankment dam of Lake Kowalskie reservoir. The aim of the study was to compare seepage calculation results obtained using analytical and numerical methods. In April 1985, after the first filling of the reservoir to normal storage levels, water leaks was observed at the base of the escarpment, on the air side of the dam. In order to control seepage flow, drainage was performed and additional piezometers installed. To explain the causes of increased pressure in the aquifer under the dam in May 1985 a simplified calculation of filtration was performed. Now, on the basis of archived data from the Department of Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering using 3D HYDRUS STANDARD software, the conditions of seepage under the dam have been recreated and re-calculated. Piezometric pressure was investigated in three variants of drainage, including drainage before and after modernization.

The aim of the study was to describe in a mathematical manner the hydraulic capacity of textile filters for wastewater treatment at changeable wastewater levels during a period between consecutive doses, taking into consideration the decisive factors for flow-conditions of filtering media. Highly changeable and slightly changeable flow-conditions tests were performed on reactors equipped with non-woven geo-textile filters. Hydraulic conductivity of filter material coupons was determined. The dry mass covering the surface and contained in internal space of filtering material was then indicated and a mathematical model was elaborated. Flow characteristics during the highly changeable flow-condition test were sensitivity to differentiated values of hydraulic conductivity in horizontal zones of filtering layer. During the slightly changeable flow-conditions experiment the differences in permeability and hydraulic conductivity of different filter (horizontal zones) height regions were much smaller. The proposed modelling approach in spite of its simplicity provides a satisfactory agreement with empirical data and therefore enables to simulate the hydraulic capacity of vertically oriented textile filters. The mathematical model reflects the significant impact of the filter characteristics (textile permeability at different filter height) and operational conditions (dosing frequency) on the textile filters hydraulic capacity.

The aim of the article was to determine the feasibility and advisability of the use of secondary filters applied before discharge of wastewater into the ground in the context of the fulfillment of the conditions of the current Regulation of the Minister of Environment of 18 November 2014 on the conditions to be met during the discharge of wastewater into the water or the ground and on substances particularly harmful to the aquatic environment. Due to expected in practice, an application and popularity, as compared variants, reactors having a very simple construction were used. The average values of removal of BOD5, COD and total suspended solids for three secondary filters technologies: biological trickling filter with natural ventilation, sand filter and nonwoven filter were compared. Additionally, as a fourth option a simple mathematical model has been presented. This model allows to estimate of BOD5 at the outflow from biological trickling filter and to verify the empirical data. Despite a large usefulness, it is rarely used in our country. It has been found the possibility of reduction of the infiltration area (surface area after reduction is 38–63% of the initial value) due to the application of secondary filters. In the case of a high initial demand of the terrain area for drainage localization the benefit in costs resulting from the reduction (several thousand of PLN) or may even significantly exceed the cost of buying and installing a cheap secondary filter. In addition, reduction the occupied area of the lot (in extreme cases up to 100 m2) by using the secondary filter allows to use the unoccupied space for other purposes, and thus gives additional economic advantage.

The deep bed filtration model elaborated by Iwasaki has many applications, e.g. solids removal from wastewater. Its main parameter, filter coefficient, is directly related to removal efficiency and depends on filter depth and time of operation. In this paper the authors have proposed a new approach to modelling, describing dry organic mass from septic tank effluent and biomass distribution in a sand filter. In this approach the variable filter coefficient value was used as affected by depth and time of operation and the live biomass concentration distribution was approximated by a logistic function. Relatively stable biomass contents in deeper beds compartments were observed in empirical studies. The Iwasaki equations associated with the logistic function can predict volatile suspended solids deposition and biomass content in sand filters. The comparison between the model and empirical data for filtration lasting 10 and 20 days showed a relatively good agreement.

Głównym celem badań była ocena przydatności filtrów włókninowych ze stałym poziomem piętrzenia jako elementu indywidualnej oczyszczalni ścieków w kontekście osiągania na odpływie stężeń zanieczyszczeń dopuszczalnych w świetle Rozporządzenia Ministra Środowiska z dnia 18 listopada 2014 r. [Rozporządzenie… 2014]. Do badań użyto dwóch filtrów 8-warstwowych (7,2 mm grubości) oraz jednego filtra 4-warstwowego (3,6 mm grubości). Średnie stężenia wskaźników zanieczyszczeń w ściekach dopływających na filtry wynosiły: ChZTCr – 377,1 mg O2 • dm–3, BZT5 – 149,4 mg O2 • dm–3, zawiesina ogólna – 166,8 mg • dm–3. W ściekach dopływających i odpływających oznaczano: ChZTCr, BZT5, zawiesinę ogólną i fosfor ogólny. Najwyższą skuteczność oczyszczania dla większości wskaźników zanieczyszczeń uzyskano dla filtrów o największej grubości, a obserwowane różnice w średnich skutecznościach usuwania zanieczyszczeń pomiędzy różnymi grubościami warstwy filtracyjnej zostały potwierdzone statystycznie. Zdaniem autora można uznać, że filtry w warunkach technicznych będą spełniać wymogi Rozporządzenia Ministra Środowiska z dnia 18 listopada 2014 r. [Rozporządzenie… 2014] dla lokalizacji w ramach aglomeracji pod warunkiem zachowania optymalnych warunków ich pracy. Badania filtrów włókninowych wykazały, że filtry ze stałym poziomem piętrzenia mogą stanowić bardzo przydatną technologię, stanowiącą drugi etap oczyszczalni indywidualnej (za osadnikiem gnilnym), zwłaszcza w warunkach odprowadzania ścieków oczyszczonych do wód powierzchniowych.

W ostatnich latach nie uzyskuje się już w skali kraju akceptowalnej wartości wskaźnika opłacalności budowy systemów zbiorczych, a procent skanalizowania (systemy zbiorcze i indywidualne) mieszkańców jest nadal niski, szczególnie na wsi. Konieczne wydaje się więc uzupełnianie systemów zbiorczych systemami indywidualnymi, a zwłaszcza oczyszczalniami przydomowymi. W artykule przedstawiono i scharakteryzowano analizę wyboru metodą AHP czterech wariantów oczyszczalni przydomowej z odprowadzaniem ścieków do gruntu. Wykazano, że metodę tę można z powodzeniem wykorzystywać do wyboru wariantu przydomowej oczyszczalni ścieków, przy czym warto mieć na uwadze to, czy priorytetem ma być system, czy odbiornik, czy też oba subkryteria są równoważne. W przypadku równoważnego znaczenia odbiornika i systemu najbardziej korzystna okazała się domowa oczyszczalnia ścieków z ciśnieniowym systemem infil- tracji do gruntu, a najmniej korzystny – osadnik gnilny z systemem infiltracyjnym do gruntu. W wariancie priorytetowo traktowanego systemu domowa oczyszczalnia ścieków z systemem ciśnieniowym przeważała nad pozostałymi rozwiązaniami na tyle nieznacznie, że z praktycznego punktu widzenia również warianty osadnika gnilnego z systemem infiltracji ciśnieniowym i klasycznym (grawitacyjnym) mogą okazać się równoważne. W przypadku uznania za priorytet względów środowiskowych za najlepszą i wyraźnie przeważającą nad pozostałymi wariantami należy uznać także domową oczyszczalnię ścieków z systemem ciśnieniowym. Przeprowadzone analizy polegające na przypisaniu określnych wartości punktowych potwierdziły wcześniejsze opinie o istotnej roli doświadczenia prowadzącego analizę lub korzystania z uśrednionych wartości uzyskanych z ana- liz wykonanych przez kilka osób.

Czas wystąpienia zanieczyszczenia w powierzchni ziemi jest informacją prawnie relewantną, bowiem to właśnie ten parametr nierzadko determinuje możliwość wykazania związku pomiędzy działalnością danego podmiotu, a skutkiem w postaci zanieczyszczenia. W zależności od tego, kiedy doszło do zdarzenia i kto był jego sprawcą, zanieczyszczenie może zostać uznane np. za szkodę w powierzchni ziemi albo zanieczyszczenie historyczne.Odwołując się do właściwości fenolu, który jest substancją zarówno występującą w środowisku w stanie naturalnym, jak i ważnym półproduktem stosowanym w przemyśle chemicznym, przeanalizowano możliwość określenia czasu wystąpienia tego zanieczyszczenia w powierzchni ziemi na podstawie znajomości czasu połowicznego rozkładu. Wyniki analiz przedstawiono na wykresach, z których w ocenie autorów oszacować można prawdopodobny czas powstania zanieczyszczenia. Wykonane obliczenia potwierdzają, że uwzględniając stosunkowo szybką biodegradowalność analizowanej substancji, pomiar jej stężenia w gruntach typu B i C powinien nastąpić maksymalnie w terminie odpowiednio do 170 i do 90 dni od momentu wystąpienia zanieczyszczenia. Wyniki analiz wskazują ponadto, że na terenach użytkowanych przemysłowo, pomiar stężenia fenolu wykonany w terminie powyżej 90 dni (przyjmując 10-dniowy czas rozpadu) a czasem nawet 20 dni (dla dwudniowego czasu rozpadu) od momentu powstania zanieczyszczenia nie znajduje uzasadnienia. W ocenie autorów, znajomość powyższych faktów może mieć kluczowe zna-czenie w doborze parametrów pomiarowych oraz dla określenia podmiotu odpowiedzialnego za zanieczyszczenie powierzchni ziemi np. fenolem.

The movement of water on flood areas depends mainly on the geometric parameters of vegetation, which as a dynamic factor causes a high changeability of flow conditions during the year. The actual ecological trend, whereby there is a tendency to leave the plants in the floodplain, imposes the necessity on engineers to develop accurate methods of determining the effect of vegetation on what used to be once a commonly occurring flood risk. According to the report on national security risk, elaborated by the Government Security Centre, flooding is the most common such risk. This is most likely to occur among all the risks included in the National Crisis Management Plan and brings the greatest number of negative effects. In order to mitigate the negative phenomena related to floodplains, the methodology and calculation of the average flows, using the Maninng and Darcy-Weisbach models is presented.

Municipalities according to existing environmental law ought to have regularly updated local environmental protection programs. Part of the municipalities in Poland, unfortunately, does not comply this requirement. In a changing and contrasting climate with increasing frequency of rainfall absence periods, the problems related to small water retention are becoming increasingly relevant and important. The aim of the study was to identify the actions assumed by municipalities in the area of the water protection and management in the local environmental protection programs. Municipalities lying in the immediate vicinity of the Warta River should treat these issues as particularly important. On the basis of the analysis, it was found that the area of water management is dominated by the tasks related to construction of wastewater treatment plants and sewerage systems. None of the analysed programs has a small water retention as priority, and only one program has a small water retention as a goal, but with regard to flood protection. A small water retention is included in environmental programs in relatively large numbers as the tasks, but it is only 5–6% of all tasks. This may suggest a slight degree of actual attention given by local authorities to the area of ​​small water retention, or not recognizing this type of action, as carried out by other entities. One of the main potential causes of small water retention marginal treatment in local environmental protection programs may be the treatment of the construction or expansion of the sanitary network and construction of sewage treatment plants as the priority due to the National Urban Wastewater Treatment Program realisation.

Small water bodies, for example garden ponds, play many functions in the environment, including biocenotic, hydrological, climatic, sozological, landfill-creative, and aesthetic. Due to their small size, these reservoirs are sensitive to external and internal factors, they are also a common natural contaminants receivers. Nonwoven filters have been investigated for several years as a useful device for treatment of domestic wastewater pre-treated in a septic tank. The aim of this study was to verify the possibility of using this type of filters for water originating from small water body purification. The effectiveness of filters were tested on the water originating from the garden pond, contained high levels of nutrients and intensive algal bloom. Research was carried out on three filters (each filter consisted of four geotextile TS 20 layers). Basic water quality indicators: total suspended solids, turbidity, COD and BOD5, temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen were measured. The research results can be considered as satisfactory in terms of mechanical treatment (removal of turbidity and total suspended solids). An important positive effect of the filters was the oxygenation of the treated water, which is especially important for fish.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the content of colloids in septic tank effluent and their impact on textile filter permeability. Measurements were performed on septic tank effluent without suspended solids but containing colloids and without colloids - including only dissolved substances (filtered by micro-filters and centrifuged). The study was conducted on unclogged and clogged textile filter coupons. During the study the following measurements were determined: turbidity, chemical oxygen demand and hydraulic conductivity of textile filter coupons. The colloid size range was assumed to be less than 1.2 microns according to the literature. Despite the relatively low content in the septic tank effluent the colloids played an important role in the clogging process. Both the filtering media, filled with low (unclogged) and high content of biomass (clogged) were sensitive to the clogging process of colloid acceleration due to the possibility of small diameter pore closure and oxygen access termination. Moreover, small size pores were probably sensitive to closing or bridging by small size colloidal particles.

The aim of the study was to verify the possibility of the existence of preferential flow paths in a septic tank and the effect of using various types of inlet and outlet in this context. Two of the most unfavourable variants of favoured flow paths for different types of inlet and outlet were analysed. The first variant was related to the occurrence of the privileged flow path below the water surface level directly to the outlet and the second variant – to the so-called boiling phenomenon in a septic tank. During the study, the intensity of outflow from the septic tank was measured. The time between successive doses also was measured. These studies were carried out using several inlet and outlet structures combinations. It was observed that by introducing a suitable outlet it is possible to limit and in the case of the particular type of filtering basket – to eliminate the unwanted phenomenon of preferential flow paths after hot water introduction. The phenomenon of boiling in the septic tank may occur due to the introduction of wastewater of higher density containing a higher concentration of the suspension. The effect of cooler water introduction on this phenomenon was not observed. The limitation of the maximum intensity of outflow from the septic tank can be achieved by filtering basket using at the outlet, which increases the flow resistance thanks to the low porosity.

The aim of this paper was to verify the common methods of hydraulic conductivity estimation for soil assessment in respect to wastewater disposal. The studies were conducted on three types of sandy soils. Hydraulic conductivity was determined using a scale effect-free laboratory method, empirical equations and compared with measurements estimated from a laboratory infiltration column with identified head loss. Based on the hydraulic conductivity values, the long-term acceptance rates (LTAR) [1] were calculated. The differences in LTAR values were about one order of magnitude smaller than differences in hydraulic coefficient. The study showed a good convergention of the results obtained from the constant head method (CHM) by solving the Glover Equation for medium and coarse sands. In low permeability soil (fine sand), the best result was obtained using CHM-a with a capillary rise consideration (a is a factor included in the flow in the unsaturated and saturated zones calculated from a capillary rise). From a practical point of view the relatively small value of LTAR underestimation (20%-for constant head method) is responsible for the extended surface area of the system and provides a security margin (the avoidance of clogging risk). The use of the falling head method, based on the Van Hoorn equation, can be said to be highly overestimated. For medium and coarse sandy soils the underestimation of LTAR calculated and based on CHM test determination is 14%–18%. The total cost of soil absorption system (SAS) designed-based on CHM in comparison to that designed-based on real hydraulic conductivity value in Poland is only about 7%–9% higher.

The objective of the study was to evaluate the usefulness of novel nonwoven textile filter technology for greywater treatment. This technology had already been used on a lab scale for septic tank effluent treatment; however, this study is the first time it has been used for greywater treatment. The set-up period with septic tank effluent (STE) feeding was significantly shorter than that of greywater feeding. The average capacities of both filter types were practically the same: 1.0−1.4 cm d−1. The relatively high efficiencies of chemical oxygen demand (CODCr) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) removal (58.8−71.6% and 56.7−79.8%, respectively) were obtained thanks to the relatively low filtration velocity and effective diffusion of atmospheric air into the greywater. The relatively high efficiency of total suspended solids (TSS) removal (67.0−88.4%) was obtained by reducing the effective pore size of the filtration layer due to high biomass concentration and accumulation of suspended solids. Thanks to hydrostatic pressure, the filters can work practically with very low energy consumption. The pollutants removal efficiencies were satisfactory in respect to simple construction and maintenance, low investment and operational costs.

Sand filtration is a primary stage of treatment for reuse of greywater. This study aimed at assessing the volatile solid removal efficiency of a sand filter and imitating its performance using analytical simulation. This study used artificial greywater, medium sand as a filtering material, and nine PVC cylinders as filter columns. Samples of the sand were collected after 6, 14 and 21 days, with the aim of specific deposit determination. The vertical distribution of specific deposit (volatile solids) in the sand filters was typical for gravitationally operated sand filters. Relatively high removal efficiency of volatile solids (51⁻60%) was achieved at relatively low cumulative hydraulic load. The average removal efficiency of organic compounds (detected as chemical oxygen demand) was 26.8%. Maximum specific deposit was achieved for a cumulative hydraulic load of 363.6 m. The filter coefficient was identified empirically for application of the Iwasaki formula. The filter coefficient λ was corrected for a better fit of the modelled values with measured values.

This article presents a small diameter gravity sewerage system in a rural area. In this system, domestic wastewater was preliminarily treated in septic tanks equipped with outlet filters, so the effluent features were similar to those of clear water. Additionally, some outlets were equipped with floating-ball check valves to avoid backflow. One of the pressure mains was used as a gravity collector conveying septic tank effluent in the direction of the pumping station during pump idle time. The operation of the system was simulated using SWMM computer code. The simulation results were validated for data obtained from part of a sewerage system in Kolonia Zolkiew and Rozki village consisting of two pumping stations and 86 serviced households using polyethylene pipes of outer diameter 50–63 mm. The results of the measurement of the outflows from one pumping station are presented. The simulation results showed good agreement with the empirical data, especially after several simulation days. The greatest discrepancy during the start-up period was the consequence of the initial conditions describing the empty pipework. Thanks to storage in the pump sumps, septic tank and pipes, as well as their smart operation, a relatively uniform inflow to the pumping stations was achieved. Simulations in SWMM showed that there is still potential to optimize the sewerage system through more adequate pump selection and pipe diameters.