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A systematic literature review (SLR) on ecological resettlements and conservation-led displacements (hereafter 'ER') is essential for guiding future research and conservation strategies, yet it has not been conducted. We performed a comprehensive two-stage review-a review of reviews and a review of empirical articles from Web of Science and Scopus-using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P). We extracted and analyzed data from 164 research articles, revealing three key themes in ER research: publication trends and geographical distribution, methodological approaches and data types, and thematic focus with associated governance and equity indicators. Notably, we found no systematically reviewed articles on ER, underscoring the pioneering nature of this study. Empirical articles publications began in 2001, despite ER practices dating back to the nineteenth century, covering 108 journals, and reflecting the discipline's diversity. The articles involved authors from 28 countries, addressing cases in 52 nations, predominantly led by academic institutions (>90%), and featuring diverse cross-institutional collaborations (n = 332). The research examined 96 unique Indigenous and local communities displaced from 12 ecosystem types (both terrestrial and marine) and conservation initiatives globally. A wide range of methodologies was employed, including interviews, field observations, focus groups, and ethnography, with over 80% using a combination of these methods. While 15 data collection tools were explored, the focus mainly targeted human-centric aspects such as livelihoods, cultural shifts, and access limitations (>90%), leaving ER's other dimensions and institutional aspects underexplored. Government-led ER initiatives (n = 149) were prevalent, but concerns regarding informed consent, participatory decision-making, human rights, and forced evictions were frequently reported (>90%), indicating global governance challenges in conservation. The thematic analysis highlighted social inequalities related to livelihoods, rights, and governance, including employment loss and compensation fairness. Eco-environmental challenges explored deforestation, habitat degradation, climate change, and biodiversity impacts, emphasizing the need to enhance ecological value while balancing development and conservation. The publication trend of ER-related articles aligns with international policy discourses on human rights, poverty alleviation, governance, and sustainable development post-2000, suggesting these issues must be considered in global policy discourses. We discuss critical findings and outline future research pathways and conservation strategies that strive for balanced coexistence between humans and nonhuman entities through an equity, justice, and sustainability lens in a pluralistic approach for the Anthropocene and beyond., Competing Interests: Compliance with Ethical Standards. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)

Current literature review frameworks often lack quantification of literature volume, guidance on keyword inclusion, confidence in identifying knowledge gaps, and the formulation of research questions, which can lead to potential bias in research. This undermines the validity and reliability of reviews. In this paper, we aim to enhance the systematic literature review (SLR) methods-starting with a review of review literature followed by a review of empirical literature-to address these challenges. By critically evaluating existing SLR approaches, we propose an enhanced SLR method, termed 'double-stage SLR,' designed to identify gaps, define research questions, develop strategies to overcome challenges, and deliver high-quality review work. This approach mirrors the Double Diamond Approach (DDA), which we refer to as 'DDA in SLR', viewing systematic reviews as projects aimed at addressing existing issues in review processes. The DDA in SLR involves a two-stage process: first, reviewing existing reviews to formulate research questions, and then examining empirical research to meet review objectives. This method does not challenge existing SLR frameworks but rather acknowledges them as the foundation for enhancement by systematically reviewing both review and empirical literature, ultimately optimizing review quality. Additionally, this enhanced method reduces risks and bias in SLR, as validated through practical application, and encourages its use to produce high-quality outputs in research, academia, and beyond., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2024 The Authors.)

As the world's largest carbon emitter of food systems, China's goal of carbon neutrality cannot be achieved without addressing the issue of food GHGs. Given the knowledge gap in subnational spatiotemporal research on China's food carbon emissions, especially drivers of regional heterogeneity and the urban‒rural divide, this study uses the household metabolism approach, the gray correlation, and logarithmic mean Divisia index decomposition to assess food-related carbon emissions (FCEs) in China, conducts urban‒rural comparisons and quantifies emission drivers across 31 provinces/regions from 1990 to 2022. The data are sourced from authentic and credible government departments. The results indicate a notable increase in FCEs in most provinces for urban regions following periods of slight decline (1990-2001), sharp increase (2001-2016), and slow growth (2016-2022). In contrast, there has been a more pronounced increase in most provinces for rural regions following a phase of slow growth (1990-2002), a marked decline (2002-2012), and a sharp rise (2012-2022). Among others, per capita carbon emissions from plant-based foods decreased from 345.79 kg in 1990 to 262.70 kg in 2022, whereas emissions from animal-based foods increased from 90.78 kg to 284.39 kg over the same period, suggesting that dietary changes have been a major contributor. Clustering based on the gray correlation further confirms the large interprovincial heterogeneity and significant urban‒rural divide. Regardless of cluster and stage, affluence consistently and significantly drives the growth of FCEs in urban/rural areas, whereas food consumption intensity consistently and significantly contributes to this reduction. The Engel coefficient reduces carbon emissions by a large amount, and the carbon emission factor increases urban/rural FCEs, albeit by a small amount. Consumption willingness reduces FCEs in urban areas but increases FCEs in rural areas in most stages. These findings can aid policy-makers in designing emission reduction policies tailored to the local context., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Conservation initiatives involve a complex interplay of various ecological, socio-political, and economic factors. Ecological resettlement (ER), implemented within the context of nature conservation policies, stands as one of the most contested issues worldwide. This study aims to navigate the domain of ER policy in conservation through discursive institutionalism and a policy arrangement approach. Focusing on Nepal's conservation policy pathways over the last seven decades, we critically analyze policy ideas and narratives, trends, patterns of policy development, institutional arrangements, driving factors, and responses to contemporary ER policies. Methods involved a systematic literature review (n = 271), a comprehensive review of policy documents and project reports (n > 150), and expert interviews (n = 20). Over the past 50 years, >7600 households in Nepal have been displaced in the name of ER and are still persisting despite the rhetoric of participatory conservation. With changes in political regimes, conservation policy has shifted from a hunting-focused approach to landscape-level and transboundary conservation. Initially influenced by internal factors such as economic and political governance, conservation policies were later shaped by international conservation discourse. Also, the operational sphere of such policy ideas and narratives - including actors, resources, discourses, and rules - along with trends, priorities, institutional arrangements, and driving factors of ER policies, has changed over time. Further, the exclusion of deprived communities and the capture of conservation benefits by elites have undermined conservation values. This research stresses the importance of a judicious balance between people's welfare and nature's integrity, emphasizing community-based natural resource management models accredited to a conservation standard. We further urge the revision of displacement-oriented conservation policies to secure the rights of Indigenous people and traditional landholders, thereby ensuring conservation and sustainable development at both national and global levels., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Incidences of failure of sustainable ecosystem management policies, especially in the developing world are partly attributable due to a lack of political will and inadequate understanding of ecosystem dynamics (ED) at the local levels. In this study, we endeavor to comprehend the dynamics of two ecosystems - forest and agriculture - by employing a resource-friendly participatory approach based on stake-taking the experiences of indigenous and forest-dependent local stakeholders in three lowland provinces of Nepal and is guided by the theory of socio-ecological concept. An in-depth survey (n = 136) was conducted using semi-structured questionnaires, key informant interviews (n = 9), and focus group discussions (n = 4) for data generation, and generalized linear models were used to test whether understanding of ED is uniform across the socio-ecological landscape. We identified that various attributes of forests and agricultural ecosystems have altered substantially earlier than 30 years (hereafter, earlier decade) relative to the present (hereafter, later decade). Apart from the natural processes including anthropogenic and climatic factors, technological innovations played a significant role in altering ecosystems in the later decade. Understanding of ED among forest-dependent stakeholders significantly varied with respect to gender, occupation, age group, gender-based water fetching responsibility, and water-fetching duration, however, no significant correlation was observed with their level of education across the landscape. The studied ecosystem attributes significantly correlate with water regime changes, signifying that water-centric ecosystem management is crucial. The attributes that observed significant dynamics in the forest ecosystem include changes in forest cover, structure and species composition, the severity of invasive species, wildfires, water regimes, and abundance and behavioral changes in mammals and avifauna. The alteration of crop cultivation and harvesting season which results in a decrease in yield, increased use of chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides), an increase in fallow land, and the proliferation of hybrid variety cultivation in the later decade are significant disparities in the dynamics of the agriculture ecosystem. To withstand the accelerated ED, stakeholders adopt various strategies, however, these strategies are either obtained from unsustainable sources entail high costs and technology, or are detrimental to the ecosystems. In relation, we present specific examples of ecosystem attributes that have significantly experienced changes in the later decade compared to the earlier decades along with plausible future pathways for policy decisions sustaining and stewardship of dynamic ecosystems across the socio-ecological landscape., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Healthy natural forests maintain and/or enhances carbon stock while also providing potential habitat and an array of services to wildlife including large carnivores such as the tiger. This study is the first of its kind in assessing relationships between above-ground biomass carbon stock, tiger density and occupancy probability and its status in protected areas, corridors, and forest connectivity blocks. The dataset used to assess the relationship were: (1) Converged posterior tiger density estimates from camera trap data derived from Bayesian- Spatially Explicit Capture-Recapture model from Chitwan National Park; (2) Site wise probability of tiger occupancy estimated across the Terai Arc Landscape and (3) Habitat wise above-ground biomass carbon stock estimated across the Terai Arc Landscape. Carbon stock maps were derived based on eight habitat classes and conservation units linking satellite (Landsat 7 ETM+) images and field collected sampling data. A significant negative relationship (r = -0.20, p<0.01) was observed between above-ground biomass carbon stock and tiger density in Chitwan National Park and with tiger occupancy (r = -0.24, p = 0.023) in the landscape. Within protected areas, we found highest mean above-ground biomass carbon stock in high density mixed forest (~223 tC/ha) and low in degraded scrubland (~73.2 tC/ha). Similarly, we found: (1) highest tiger density ~ 0.06 individuals per 0.33 km2 in the riverine forest and lowest estimates (~0.00) in degraded scrubland; and (2) predictive tiger density of 0.0135 individuals per 0.33 km2 is equivalent to mean total of 43.7 tC/ha in Chitwan National Park. Comparatively, we found similar above-ground biomass carbon stock among corridors, large forest connectivity blocks (~117 tC/ha), and within in tiger bearing protected areas (~119 tC/ha). Carbon conservation through forest restoration particularly in riverine habitats (forest and grassland) and low transitional state forests (degraded scrubland) provides immense opportunities to generate win-win solutions, sequester more carbon and maintain habitat integrity for tigers and other large predators., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2023 Thapa et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Laos is among the top twenty coffee producing country in the world-producing about 39,000 tonnes per year-and most of its production is currently exported to over 26 countries, contributing about 1.1% of the total export value or US$64.3 million in 2019 to Laos' national economy. COVID-19 restrictions on trade and movement of people have largely impacted on coffee markets and production. As a strategic crop in Laos, it is supported by a range of policies and programs to generate greater benefits to both independent smallholder farmers and those involved in cooperatives, including support for agroforestry production models involving coffee and tree crops. However, studies of the profitability of different coffee agroforestry models are limited. This study compares financial returns from four most popular coffee agroforestry models in two coffee production provinces of Laos, before and during COVID-19 pandemic. The data were gathered from 20 farmers, five coffee traders and an integrated coffee processing company. These data were then triangulated with, and supplemented by, interviews with coffee exporters ( n  = 3) and key informants ( n  = 4). Financial indicators suggest that all four agroforestry models were profitable before COVID, but profits for cooperative growers were higher than for smallholders due to higher crop productivity and lower costs. Despite higher prices due to COVID restrictions, other factors reduced profitability of all four models and one smallholder model became unprofitable. The reasons for such differences and related policy implications are discussed., (© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2023, Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.)

China is a world leader on agriculture production; with only 8% of global cropland it feeds 20% of the world's population. However, the increasing production capacity comes with the cost of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. As a populous country with the highest GHG emissions in the world, determining how to achieve the dual goals of mitigating climate change and ensuring food security is of great significance for the agricultural sector. This requires assessing the spatial variation in agricultural greenhouse gases (GHGs) and their drivers. In this study, we conduct a spatial assessment of agricultural GHGs at the provincial level in China for the years 1997-2017, and then explore the effects of related factors on GHG emissions using a geographically weighted regression (GWR) model. The results suggest the following. 1) There have always been significant interprovincial variations, whether in the total amount, structure, intensity, or per capita level of agricultural GHG emissions. 2) The directions of the effects of selected factors on GHG intensity fall broadly into three categories: negative effects (urbanization, intensity of agricultural practices, and agricultural structure), positive effects (agricultural investment and cropland endowments), and mixed effects, with factors leading to reductions in some provinces and increases in others (economic level, frequency and intensity of disasters, and the level of mechanization). 3) The magnitude of the effects varies by factor and also by province. The results suggest synergetic province- or state-specific reduction policies in agricultural GHG for China, as well as for other developing and emerging economies., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The household sector, which plays a critical role in emission reduction, is a main source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Although numerous academic journals have published papers on household CO 2 emissions (HCEs), great challenges remain in research on assessments, determinants, and further research prospects. This work reviews and projects HCEs using a bibliometric analysis and a systematic review based on the data from the Web of Science (WOS) platform from 1991 to 2020. Over the last 30 years, there has been a rapid and active trend of research on HCEs. We find that (1) the scale of the bibliometric analysis shows that research on HCEs is interdisciplinary and must consider overall cognition of the environment, the economy, society, and technology. It also needs to strengthen cooperation between different countries/territories to emphasize the quality and influence of papers on HCEs. (2) A review of previous literature shows that research on HCEs mainly focuses on the research object, mainstream assessments, and influencing factors. The following six main aspects impact HCEs: demographic, income, social, technological, policy, and natural factors. (3) The research discussion suggests that more micro-level research needs to be conducted, such as research on the city level and the individual level, which is important for sustainable development and low consumption. A comparative analysis of the differences in HCEs is a future research direction. Additionally, localized carbon emission reduction measures need to be implemented.

Countries in the Asia-Pacific region are pioneers in the implementation of climate change mitigation initiatives. They have implemented readiness activities to fulfil the requirements for results-based payments from the forestry sector (termed REDD+). Using content analysis, a questionnaire, and a series of workshops with key stakeholders, we mapped the REDD + readiness of 11 Asia-Pacific countries with respect to UNFCCC's resolutions on REDD+. Their status was mapped against the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), which constitutes the five design elements of the Warsaw REDD + Framework and the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) requirements. While the overall achievements vary across the studied countries, our results demonstrate that Vietnam, Nepal, and Indonesia are in an advanced stage of REDD + readiness. A significant number of conditional NDCs and timely and adequate technical and financial support are imperative for the studied countries to achieve a high level of readiness. However, lack of trust and coordination among the state and non-state actors, limited national participation of Civil Society Organizations and Indigenous Peoples in REDD + related committees, and conflicts among regulatory frameworks related to forestry and other land uses remain common challenges for these countries. These challenges risk disrupting the essence of REDD + as a multi-level, multi-stage and multi-stakeholder governance system. Stakeholders in these countries are optimistic about a better performance of REDD + regarding emission reduction, enhanced livelihoods, improved forest governance and improvement in biodiversity. However, any optimism is challenged by stakeholder's own suspicion of the effectiveness of REDD + projects to achieve permanency and control leakage/displacement. Building political will and the development of context-specific benefit-sharing plans and their effective implementation could be important keys to maintaining optimism of stakeholders about REDD + initiatives., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Savanna fire is a major source of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In Australia, savanna fire contributes about 3% of annual GHG emissions reportable to the Kyoto Protocol. In order to reduce GHG emissions from savanna burning, the Australian government has developed and approved a Kyoto compliant savanna controlled burning methodology-the first legal instrument of this kind at a global level-under its Emission Reduction Fund. However, this approved methodology is currently only applicable to nine vegetation fuel types across northern parts of Australia in areas which receive on average over 600 mm rainfall annually, covering only 15.4% of the total land area in Australia. Savanna ecosystems extend across a large proportion of mainland Australia. This paper provides a critical review of ten key factors that need to be considered in developing a savanna burning methodology applicable to the other parts of Australia. It will also inform discussion in other countries intent on developing similar emissions reduction strategies.

China contributes 23 % of global carbon emissions, of which 26 % originate from the household sector. Due to vast variations in both climatic conditions and the affordability and accessibility of fuels, household carbon emissions (HCEs) differ significantly across China. This study compares HCEs (per person) from urban and rural regions in northern China with their counterparts in southern China. Annual macroeconomic data for the study period 2005 to 2012 were obtained from Chinese government sources, whereas the direct HCEs for different types of fossil fuels were obtained using the IPCC reference approach, and indirect HCEs were calculated by input-output analysis. Results suggest that HCEs from urban areas are higher than those from rural areas. Regardless of the regions, there is a similarity in per person HCEs in urban areas, but the rural areas of northern China had significantly higher HCEs than those from southern China. The reasons for the similarity between urban areas and differences between rural areas and the percentage share of direct and indirect HCEs from different sources are discussed. Similarly, the reasons and solutions to why decarbonising policies are working in urban areas but not in rural areas are discussed.

REDD+ has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, meet climate stabilisation targets and protect biological diversity. Consequently, millions of dollars are being channelled into developing countries rich in forests, for pilot projects that will provide data for the design of REDD+ projects that are based on incentives and performance. This paper evaluates the impacts of REDD+ pilot projects on community forests and associated user groups (CFUGs) in Nepal. A field study targeted eight CFUGs that participated in a REDD+ pilot project funded by the Forest Carbon Trust Fund in Nepal. The pilot project increased the participation of Dalit, Indigenous people, women and the poor, and was able to provide some social safeguards. However, when all the additional costs and foregone benefits of the project are considered, REDD+ is not an attractive market-based option for Nepalese CFUGs. A better approach would be a bilateral or multilateral approach that is not market based, but provides incentives beyond environmental and social safeguards. The results of this study will be useful in designing REDD+ policies and programmes for community forest-based REDD+ stakeholders in developing countries., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The Australian Government is meeting the challenge of water scarcity and climate change through significant on-farm infrastructure investment to increase water use efficiency and productivity, and secure longer term water supplies. However, it is likely that on-farm infrastructure investment will alter energy consumption and therefore generate considerable greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, suggesting potential conflicts in terms of mitigation and adaptation policies. In particular, the introduction of a price on carbon may influence the extent to which new irrigation technologies are adopted. This study evaluated trade-offs between water savings, GHG emissions and economic gain associated with the conversion of a sprinkler (hand shift) irrigation system to a drip (trickle) irrigation system for a lettuce production system in the Lockyer Valley, one of the major vegetable producing regions in Australia. Surprisingly, instead of trade-offs, this study found positive synergies - a win-win situation. The conversion of the old hand-shift sprinkler irrigation system to a drip irrigation system resulted in significant water savings of almost 2 ML/ha, as well as an overall reduction in GHG emissions. Economic modelling, at a carbon price of $ 30/t CO(2)e, indicated that there was a net benefit of adoption of the drip irrigation system of about $ 4620/ML/year. We suggest priority should be given, in the implementation of on-farm infrastructure investment policy, to replacing older inefficient and energy-intensive sprinkler irrigation systems such as hand shift and roll-line. The findings of the study support the use of an integrated approach to avoid possible conflicts in designing national climate change mitigation and adaptation policies, both of which are being developed in Australia., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A study was undertaken to evaluate the human energy consumption of various field operations involved in lowland rice cultivation in Malaysia. Based on recorded average heart rates, fertilizing was found to be the most strenuous operation, with an average heart rate of 138 beats min(-1). There were no significant differences in the average heart rates of the subjects among the individual tasks within the first plowing, second plowing, and harvesting operations, with the average heart rates for these three tasks being 116, 106, and 106 beats min(-1), respectively. The corresponding energy expenditures were 3.90, 3.43, and 3.35 kcal min(-1). Loading the seed into the blower tank and broadcasting the seed were the most critical tasks for the seed broadcasting operation, with average heart rates of 124 and 136 beats min(-1), respectively. The highest energy expenditure of 418.38 kcal ha(-1) was observed for seed broadcasting, and the lowest energy expenditure of 127.96 kcal ha(-1) was for second plowing. The total seasonal human energy expenditure for rice cultivation was estimated to be 5810.71 kcal ha(-1), 55.7% of which was spent on pesticide spraying. Although the sample size in this study was relatively small, the results indicated that human energy expenditure per unit area (kcal ha(-1)) was positively linked to the average heart rate of the subjects and negatively linked to the field capacity. Thus, mechanization of certain tasks could decrease worker physical effort and fatigue and increase production.

Recently, partly due to the increasing carbon consciousness in the electorates and partly due to the imminent introduction of the Australian Government's Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS), estimating carbon footprints is becoming increasingly necessary in agriculture. By taking data from several sources, this study estimates the national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from a variety of farm inputs, for the 23 key vegetables crops grown in Australia. For the 121,122 ha of land occupied by vegetable farms, there are 1.1 MtCO(2)e GHG emissions or 9.2 tCO(2)e ha(-1). In total, 65% of total GHG emissions from the vegetable industry are due to electricity use for irrigation and post-harvest on-farm activities, 17% from soil N(2)O emissions due to N fertiliser use, 10% from agrochemicals, 7% through fossils fuels and 1% from on-farm machinery. The top four vegetables (by area), potatoes, lettuce, tomatoes and broccoli account for 29.1%, 7.9%, 5.9% and 7.2% of total GHG emissions from vegetables, respectively. However, the ratio of GHG emissions between the highest and lowest-emitting crops per hectare and per tonne, are different. Therefore, care must be exercised in carbon footprint labelling vegetable products to ensure that the labels reflect carbon emissions on a per tonnage basis.

Pig farms are a vital component of rural economies in Australia. However, disposal of effluent leads to many environmental problems. This case study of the Berrybank Farm piggery waste management system in Victoria estimates greenhouse gas (GHG) benefits from three different activities. Analysis reveals that the capturing and combusting of methane from piggery effluent could save between 4859 and 5840 tCO2e yr(-1) of GHG emissions. Similarly, using methane for replacing fuels for electricity generation could save another 800 tCO2e yr(-1)of GHGs. Likewise, by utilizing the biogas wastes to replace inorganic fertilizers there could be a further saving of 1193 to 1375 tCO2e yr(-1) of GHG, depending on the type of fertilizers the waste replaces. Therefore, a well-managed piggery farm with 15,000 pigs could save 6,852 to 8,015 tCO2e yr(-1), which equates to the carbon sequestrated from 6,800 to 8,000 spotted gum trees (age=35 year) in their above plus below-ground biomass. Implementation of similar project in suitable areas in Australia could have significant environmental and financial benefits.

One of the assumptions underlying efforts to convert cropping land, especially marginal crop land, to plantations is that there will be a net reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, with a gas "sink" replacing a high energy system in which the breakdown of biomass is routinely accelerated to prepare for new crops. This research, based on case studies in Kingaroy in southeast Queensland, compares the amount of greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions from a peanut/maize crop rotation, a pasture system for beef production and a spotted gum (Corymbia citriodora) timber plantation. Three production inputs, fuel, farm machinery and agrochemicals (fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides) are considered. The study extends beyond the farm gate to include packing and transportation and the time period is 30 years. The results suggest that replacing the crops with plantations would indeed reduce emissions but that a pasture system would have even lower net emissions. These findings cast some doubt on the case for farm forestry as a relatively effective means of ameliorating greenhouse gas emissions.