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This paper addresses the Catalonian political process for independence. Based on the outcome of the 2017 Catalonian Regional Election, it firstly innovates by building an independence-feeling indicator for each municipality. Subsequently, we resort to the concept of polarization to assess the level of inherent conflict. Besides, we evaluate to what extent polarization can be explained by different variables. Then, in the second part of the paper, we redo the analysis but, to handle the potential aggregation problem that arises with geographically reference data (MAUP problem), we compute for each municipality two (antiindependence-feeling and proindependence-feeling) indicators rather than one. In doing so, we avoid merging votes that offset each other and, by applying the polarization index, we not only test for (inter-) polarization but also (intra-) polarization (within municipalities). The results show important differences. More specifically, although polarization across municipalities is relatively small, there is a high level of polarization within them. Moreover, while population density, Catalan proficiency and place of birth are instrumental when explaining polarization if a single indicator is computed, in the case of two indicators unemployment rate, age and wealth also emerge as remarkable variables, while among the three previous ones the importance of population density decreases.

The refugee crisis evidenced a myriad of flaws in the EU common asylum policy, especially the lack of fairness in asylum burden-sharing. This paper reveals that, despite some progress in terms of i...

We analyse the transmission factors shaping the spatial distribution of COVID‐19 infections during the distinct phases of the pandemic’s first wave in Madrid, Spain, by fitting a spatial regression model capturing neighbourhood effects between municipalities. Our findings highlight that factors such as population, mobility, and tourism were instrumental in the days before the national lockdown. As a result, already in the early part of the lockdown phase, a geographical pattern emerged in the spread of the disease, along with the positive (negative) impact of age (wealth) on virus transmission. Thereafter, spatial links between municipalities weakened, as the influences of mobility and tourism were eroded by mass quarantine. However, in the de‐escalation phase, mobility reappeared, reinforcing the geographical pattern, an issue that policymakers must pay heed to. Indeed, a counterfactual analysis shows that the number of infections without the lockdown would have been around 170% higher., Explanatory factors of the spread of the pandemic in Madrid changed according to the phase of national lockdown. As for the effectiveness of social distance measures, a counterfactual analysis shows that the number of infections without the lockdown would have been around 170% higher.

This paper tries to unveil the main factors behind the triumph of the proindependence vote in the 2017 Regional Election in Catalonia. The empirical analysis, which is carried out at the county level and by using a spatial econometric model, reveals that geographical location matters. The estimation results also suggest that the pro-independence vote is mainly linked to the birthplace of individuals. More specifically, it shows that the independence feeling is weaker the higher the share of citizens born outside Catalonia. On the other side, young and highly educated people are more prone to independence. Additionally, it is shown that people working in the public sector are more likely to vote for a political party in favor of Catalonia remaining in Spain, while the opposite happens for those voters working in construction. Finally, the results seem to dispel some myths associated with the role played by the county’s size and level of income on the proindependence vote.

The main aim of this study, which takes Spanish provinces over the periods 2004–2007 and 2008–2013 as case study, is threefold: first, to test whether labor factors affect to a greater extent foreigners than natives when it comes to migrating; second, to detect changes in migration patterns over the crisis period; third, to unveil nonlinearities in the relationship between migration and wages. To do so, an extended gravity model, combined with a methodology that identifies endogenous thresholds to nonlinear effects, is estimated. The results support that the role played by labor factors is more important for foreigners than natives, especially before the outbreak of the economic crisis. The results also indicate that the relative size of the service sector and, to a lesser extent, climate conditions have gained importance as attraction factors for natives over the crisis, while the opposite happens for foreigners. Therefore, evidence clearly supports the idea that business cycle modifies the decision making of migrants. Finally, some nonlinearities in the effect of expected wages on migration are found regardless of the group and/or time frame considered.

This paper investigates the determinants of internal mobility across Spanish provinces of both foreigners and natives over the decade 2004-14. Building on an extended gravity model, our econometric strategy controls for multilateral resistance to migration by including different fixed effects structures. Additionally, the paper allows for some nonlinearities in the key economic determinants of migration, wages and unemployment. The main finding is that the impact of economic factors on internal migration is higher for foreigners than for natives; furthermore, the effect of these factors on internal migration is clearly nonlinear for the group of natives, while this only happens for foreigners when dyadic fixed effects of origin-destination are considered. Finally, the paper shows that the nature of the amenities with the greatest impact on internal movements differs between the two groups: foreigners look for social services and cultural amenities, whereas natives are more attracted by good climate conditions.

On the basis of a spatial wage-curve equation, this paper analyses the effect of immigration on average wages across Spanish provinces (NUTS-3) over the period 2004–15. To do so, a spatial panel Durbin model is estimated. The results reveal that there exists a small negative effect, which is mainly determined by the presence of spillovers. Moreover, they reveal that the average wage of a particular province depends positively on its productivity level and the share of the manufacturing industry, and negatively on its rate of unemployment and the share of the service sector.

RESUMEN: Este trabajo aborda el estudio de la relación entre vacantes y desempleo para la economía española. En primer lugar se examina el marco teórico, la conocida curva de Beveridge. Luego, con distintas specificaciones y métodos de estimación por cuestiones de robustez, se estima dicha curva durante el período 2000-2011. Los resultados muestran la validez de la curva de Beveridge y un pronunciado desplazamiento de esta en los últimos años. Se puede decir, por tanto, que el desempleo de carácter estructural ha ganado importancia con la crisis económica. ABSTRACT: The aim of this paper is to study the relationship between job vacancies and unemployment for the Spanish economy. Firstly, we examine the theory underlying such a relationship, namely the Beveridge curve. Next, different versions of the Beveridge curve are estimated for the period 2000-2011. The results show the validity of the Beveridge curve to model the relationship between unemployment and job vacancies, as well as a clearly defined outward shift of the curve during the recent years of economic crisis. This provides clear evidence of the increasing role played by the structural unemployment in the Spanish labor market.

The aim of this paper is to examine the spatial distribution of non- $$\hbox {CO}_2$$ generating energy sources in the world for the period 1990–2009, paying special attention to the evolution of cross-country disparities. To this end, after carrying out a classical convergence analysis, a more thorough investigation of the entire distribution is presented by examining its external shape, the intra-distribution dynamics and the long-run equilibrium distribution. This analysis reveals the existence of a weak, rather insignificant, convergence process and that large cross-country differences are likely to persist in the long-run. Next, as polarization indicators are a proper way of appraising potential conflict in international environmental negotiations, we test whether, or not, the distribution dynamics concurs with the presence of polarization. Our results indicate that two poles can be clearly differentiated, one with high and other with low non- $$\hbox {CO}_2$$ generating energy shares. In view of these findings, and to ensure a fair transition to a sustainable energy system, the paper calls for the development of an ambitious clean energy agenda, especially in countries with low non- $$\hbox {CO}_2$$ generating energy shares.

This paper analyzes the effects of interpersonal fiscal redistribution on provincial growth and convergence in Spain over 2000-2010. After reviewing the literature and stressing the ambiguity of its conclusions, the paper offers an overview of the main characteristics of the interpersonal fiscal flows distribution. Next, it specifies a convergence model in which interpersonal fiscal flows are used as a key independent variable. Before further proceeding, the paper applies a filtering technique to remove spatial autocorrelation from raw data and, then, it estimates the model by GMM. The main conclusion is that interpersonal fiscal flows are an important policy instrument to promote both growth and, above all, convergence across Spanish provinces. Therefore, it seems that the typical trade-off between efficiency and equity does not hold in this case.

This paper investigates the settlement patterns of the foreign population across the Spanish provinces over the period 2000–2009 and identifies the key determinants of these patterns. To this end, the paper determines the spatial distribution of foreign residents and, based on it, incorporates explanatory variables into a model designed to understand settlement patterns. After addressing the issue of spatial dependence, the model is estimated at both the aggregate level and for major areas of origin. The results reveal that social networks and economic factors, such as unemployment and per capita income in the hosting provinces, play a key role in explaining foreigners' settlement patterns in Spain. Significant differences exist, however, when areas of origin are allowed for.

Over the last two decades, Spain has evolved rapidly from a classic labour exporter to a labour importer. Until the 1930s Spain's migration history was predominantly marked by emigration to the Americas, and from the end of World War II until the early 1970s by emigration to some industrialized countries in Western Europe. For the first time in modern times, Spain is now the second country in the world with large-scale immigration. Its strategic location, a relatively permissive immigration policy and economic opportunities derived from Spain's entry into the European Community have positioned this country as a major destination for immigrants. Additionally, since the mid-1990s international migration in Spain has dramatically changed in origin composition. Despite the common perception of Africa as the most important source of immigration, some Latin American countries, in a very short time, have become some of the major sources of immigration to Spain; indeed, the term “Latin-Americanization” has been coined to describe this process. This being so, the aim of this article is twofold. First, we examine the main reasons behind the extremely rapid increase of Latin American migration to Spain during the last decade. Then we briefly discuss some future perspectives.

This paper is aimed at exploring the role played by space on the dynamics of regional per capita income disparities in Europe between 1980 and 2005. To do that, an analysis based on the so-called distribution dynamics approach is used as benchmark. Therefore, the external shape of the per capita income distribution and movements within it are examined using both continuous and discrete techniques. This first approach reveals that regional disparities across European regions have decreased over time and, based on the computation of a mobility index, also highlights the existence of a medium mobility degree within the distribution. Subsequently, a spatially conditioned distribution dynamics approach is developed to adequately assess the spatial dimension of the convergence process. In this new approach per capita income of each region is doubly conditioned on its per capita income and the per capita income of its neighbours, both in a previous period. Additionally, a novel mobility index on the basis of a spatial Markov chains approach is devised. The results illustrate the importance of geography in explaining regional per capita income evolution; in particular it is shown that poor regions surrounded by rich regions have a much higher probability of escaping the poverty trap than other poor regions.

Using an exploratory space-time analysis called spMorph, this article explores how the spatial distribution of international migration across the Spanish provinces has evolved over the period 1998-2010. The chief advantage of this approach is that it permits the unambiguous identification of two key components in a spatial redistribution process, namely the shocks to the spatial distribution and the duration of regime fades. The results of the analysis show that administrative regions do not provide a reliable picture of the real dynamics in Spain's international migration distribution. In addition, the identification of two spatial shocks reveals the existence of three spatial regimes that consistently characterize the various phases that international migration has been through since the late 1990s.

This paper is aimed at analysing the European Union's international migration distribution (EUIMD) for the period 1990–2010. Besides some relevant aspects of the distribution, such as inequality and dynamics, it mainly focuses on trends in polarisation and in exploring some key factors that might be behind these trends. The results of the study reveal that polarisation in EUIMD has followed a decreasing path and that factors like geographic location and government expenditure on health are those which better explain the polarisation phenomenon.

The main purpose of this paper is to ascertain whether internal migration of foreign-born residents is behind the infant process of provincial income convergence that is taking place in Spain since 2001. In order to fulfil this goal, we propose a new approach within the Markov chain framework that enables us to explore the migration–convergence relationship. For the sake of comparison, this approach is applied to internal migration flows of both foreign-born and natives. The results obtained indicate that the increasingly larger share of foreign-born residents in internal migration is not the cause of the recent reactivation of the provincial convergence process. In addition, these results also reveal that differences between foreign-born and natives in the way they move within Spain do not have a significantly distinct effect on income convergence.

This paper analyses differences in the degree to which European Union countries have achieved the renewable electricity (RES-E) targets set by the European Commission for each Member State for 2010. After defining an RES-E target achievement (TA) indicator, both conventional and novel techniques are used to examine the main features of its distribution, including the degree of inequality, external shape and intra-distribution dynamics, for the 1996–2006 time period. The analysis demonstrates that disparities in TA have been strongly reduced and that intra-distribution mobility was very high.

The aim of this paper is to analyse cross-country differences for shares of renewable electricity in the EU-27 for the period 1996–2005. We carry out a standard convergence analysis and then examine the evolution of the entire distribution, namely the external shape, intra-distributional dynamics and ergodic distribution. Our main results are as follows. First, there has been a clear convergence pattern for renewable electricity shares across countries. Second, the shape of the distribution has varied significantly over time, with more countries positioned around the mean in 2005 than in 1996. Third, the analysis shows that intra-distributional mobility has been relatively high, especially in those countries with the highest share in the initial year of our sample. Fourth, in spite of this, large cross-country differences will likely persist for RES-E shares in the hypothetical long-term equilibrium, which implies that a major impulse to national RES-E support policies will be necessary in the coming years to shorten this gap.

This paper aims to analyse the role played by internal migration of the foreign-born population in the process of income convergence at provincial level in Spain over the period 1996–2005. First, it examines, using both classical and recent analytical approaches, the provincial income convergence process. Second, the paper gives a succinct description of recent trends in foreign-born internal migration. Third, the influence of these migration flows on provincial income convergence is addressed by estimating several convergence equations. The results of this analysis seem to reject the hypothesis that foreign-born internal migration exerts a strong influence on the income convergence process. Resumen Este articulo busca analizar el papel que juega en Espana la migracion interna de la poblacion extranjera en el proceso de convergencia de renta a escala provincial durante el periodo 1996-2005. Primero, mediante enfoques analiticos tanto clasicos como recientes, examina el proceso de convergencia de renta provincial. Segundo, el articulo ofrece una descripcion sucinta de las tendencias recientes de migracion interna de extranjeros. Tercero, se trata la influencia de estos flujos migratorios en la convergencia de renta provincial estimando varias ecuaciones de convergencia. Los resultados de este analisis parecen rechazar la hipotesis de que la migracion interna de extranjeros ejerce una fuerte influencia en el proceso de convergencia de renta.

This paper presents a novel method for modelling internal migration dynamics using non-stationary causative matrices. Its application to annual migration flows in Spain reveals changes in location preferences of migrants between 1986 and 2003. Our approach also indi- cates some instability in Spain's migratory system prior to the late 1990s, as opposed to a negligible instability after that.

This paper addresses the issue of intra-distribution income dynamics at the European regional level for the periods 1980–1993 and 1993–2005. In order to assess whether the results depend on the estimation method, the paper applies and compares two relatively novel techniques: the highest conditional density region approach and a new mobility measure based on a discrete-time Markov chain approach. An interesting conclusion and a methodological lesson have been obtained. The conclusion is that, whatever the technique used, the degree of intra-distribution mobility—which has favoured convergence—has been much higher in the first than in the second period. The lesson is that the use of different approaches is highly recommended not only for the sake of robustness but also because they offer additional insights into intra-distribution dynamics.

This paper aims to evaluate structural shifts in the regional per capita income distribution in Europe between the periods 1980–1993 and 1993–2005. After a brief analysis of several aspects of the distribution (inequality, external shape, polarisation and spatial dependence), we focus on intra-distribution dynamics by applying a novel causative matrix model that reveals strong structural shifts. In particular, increase in relative persistence during the second period has been the major change, especially for regions around the average and those at the upper end of the income distribution.

The aim of this paper is to analyse some relevant aspects on productivity distribution in the European Union at regional level. Firstly, the paper examines its external shape and intra-distribution dynamics. Subsequently, an analysis of the factors that might be behind the productivity distribution and its dynamics is carried out. The results, represented by means of a relatively new visualization tool, highlight the role played by factors such as geographical location, compensation per employee and investment per employee in explaining this issue.

This paper examines the effect of internal migration of foreign-born residents on migratory patterns of natives in Spain during 2003-2005. The results obtained through a synthetic index of inter-regional mobility and the comparison of relative redundancies for their migration flows show that the foreign-born population's influence is negligible.

ResumenEste trabajo trata de contribuir a la literatura existente sobre disparidades regionales en Europa a partir del análisis, durante el periodo 1995–2008, de distintos conceptos de convergencia. Para ello, y tras una sucinta revisión de la literatura empírica existente, se utilizan dos metodologías alternativas aunque complementarias: el enfoque clásico de convergencia y el enfoque de la dinámica distributional. Los resultados obtenidos apuntan a la existencia de un proceso de convergencia regional en el pib per cápita en Europa, así como a la presencia de una cierta, aunque no muy elevada, movilidad dentro de la distribución.

This paper examines health care expenditure (HCE) disparities between the European Union countries over the period 1995-2010. By means of using a continuous version of the distribution dynamics approach, the key conclusions are that the reduction in disparities is very weak and, therefore, persistence is the main characteristic of the HCE distribution. In view of these findings, a preliminary attempt is made to add some insights into potentially main factors behind the HCE distribution. The results indicate that whereas per capita income is by far the main determinant, the dependency ratio and female labour participation do not play any role in explaining the HCE distribution; as for the rest of the factors studied (life expectancy, infant mortality, R&D expenditure and public HCE expenditure share), we find that their role falls somewhat in between.

article i nfo Previous papers dealing with the dynamics of income distributions have generally assumed stationary transition probabilities, effectively ruling out the possibility that intra-distribution dynamics change over time. This paper shows that the Chapman-Kolmogorov equation can be used to capture this added complexity. The paper also emphasizes that a test for stationarity should be carried out routinely because the stationarity assumption could lead to misleading conclusions.

The use of 3D scanning systems for acquiring and analyzing the external shape features of arbitrary objects has different applications in different cultural, scientific, and technological fields. In this work, 3D laser scanning techniques are used, for the first time, to our knowledge, as a novel and non-destructive application for the morphological study of meteorite impact rocks. The subject of the study was a rock displaying impact textures and associated with the Karikkoselkä impact crater (Finland) (Lehtinen et al. 1996). This methodology permitted: (1) a computerized three-dimensional modelling to be carried out on the bulk impact-related rock; (2) other more specific characterizations to be performed, such as detailed topographic studies of its surface impact features; (3) some physical properties of the rock to be determined (volume); (4) the shatter cone impact texture to be completed with a realistic estimation of its convergence angle; and (5) a broad demonstration of the significance and effectiveness of 3D laser scanning techniques as a complementary tool for the study of this type of meteoritic impact-related rocks.

International migration issues are at the forefront of the political debate in the European Union (EU). Some reasons justify the increasing relevance of this topic, being the unprecedented scale of international migration flows, especially in countries such as Spain, the most prominent. In fact, adequate responses to the necessity for controlling effectively large flows of irregular immigration, and also safeguarding the internal security, are insistently demanded and always placed in the center of the political debate. Thus, recent studies portraying immigration experiences in the EU have been prolific in the literature on international migration. Some of these were applied to Spain as a representative country of changes in international migration patterns. However, and although some contributions to the analysis of international migration in Spain have been made, an examination of the international migration distribution (IMD) is still a pending question that needs further analysis. Accordingly, the aim of this paper is to analyse some relevant aspects on IMD in Spain at regional level. After a descriptive analysis showing the importance that international migration plays in today's Spanish demography and economy, the paper examines the IMD's external shape and its intra-distribution mobility. Subsequently, an analysis of the factors that might be behind the IMD and its dynamics is carried out. The results will give information about the role played by factors such as geographical location, per capita income, industry mix, employment density and social networks in explaining this issue. Keywords: international migration; Spanish regions; distribution dynamics; highest density regions

Este trabajo analiza la movilidad y la dispersión espacial de las migraciones interiores y su relación con el proceso de convergencia. El estudio de movilidad se realiza mediante dos medidas basadas en una cadena de Markov y pertenecientes a una familia general de medidas de movilidad, que se apoyan en la distancia entre localizaciones de origen y destino. Para el estudio de la dispersión espacial se plantea una medida procedente de la interpretación de la dispersión espacial a partir del concepto de entropía. La aplicación de estas medidas a la secuencia de matrices de flujos migratorios con desagregación regional para 1986-2003 muestra que las migraciones interiores no han actuado de mecanismo corrector de las desigualdades regionales en renta per capita., The aim of this paper is the analysis of mobility and spatial dispersion in internal migrations and its relation with GDP convergence in Spain. The study of mobility is carried out using two measures based on Markov chains, which belong to a general family of mobility measures based on the distance between locations of origin and destination. For the study of spatial dispersion, a measure coming from the concept of entropy is used. The application of these measures to the sequence of matrixes of migratory flows between regions in 1986-2003 provides evidence of the loss of the role of internal migrations as a correction element of regional income disparities.