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Nodular Gill Disease (NGD) in highly intensive farming systems plays a major role in production losses and its outbreaks can result in cumulative mortality exceeding 60%, especially during the winter months and early spring. NGD was described in rainbow trout farms of North America and Europe and appears to be caused by different species of amoebae, for example both testate (Roghostoma minus) and naked amoebae belonging to five genera. In the last few years, NGD is widespread in rainbow trout farms of northern and central Italy. In March 2017, during the epidemiological investigations into NGD in salmonid farms of northern Italy, the first cases of branchitis referable to amoebic infection in juvenile brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) were observed. Twenty‐five live and moribund brown trout from each tank were collected at monthly intervals from March to May 2017 for a total of 150 fish. The samples were subjected to necropsy, parasitological analysis, histology and bacteriological and virological examinations for diagnostic purposes. Histological examination of gills from diseased and moribund brown trout showed characteristic pathological signs of NGD infection. The most significant change was the development of heavy gill lesions with variable degrees of lamellar fusion, especially in the distal part of filaments (clubbing), with obliteration of interlamellar spaces. A limited number of amoebae were detected along the surface of the gills. The lesions observed in fresh mounts and in histological sections obtained from the gills of the infected brown trout confirmed to be less serious than those detected in affected rainbow trout of the same farm. Therefore, this investigation, which reports for the first time NGD in brown trout, has shown that S. trutta would be less susceptible to this pathology than rainbow trout.

Many physiological and psychological factors govern the consumption and intake of fish. In addition, the perception that consumers have regarding the risks associated with the consumption of fish is also crucially influential. Several studies have investigated the actual risks and benefits of consuming fish to human health. Among the investigated species, mercury concentrations were found to be higher in billfish than in other species. This implies that consuming billfish has potentially negative implications for human health. The present study aims to explore the billfish consumption habits and risk perception of fish consumers who live in the Western Central Atlantic, particularly in the Dominican Republic (DR) and Grenada (GR). Two online questionnaires were administered in the DR and GR between January and April of 2018. Among the 715 total respondents, 626 stated that they consumed fish and were thus included in the study––518 of these respondents were from the DR and 108 were from GR. Most respondents, both in the DR and GR, reported that they generally eat fish at least once a week and that they eat the billfish species in particular around once per month or less. The weekly consumption of billfish was higher in GR than in the DR. The average estimation was equal to 89.7 g per week in the DR and 105.2 g per week in GR. Respondents stated that they eat billfish cooked or smoked; only a marginal number of the DR respondents stated that they eat it raw. The GR respondents mostly consume billfish at home, whereas the DR respondents mostly consume them at restaurants. Billfish consumers were found to have a low perception of the risks associated with billfish consumption. Only 5% of the DR respondents and 14% of GR respondents consider billfish a health risk. Although certain consumers are aware of the sources of risk associated with billfish consumption and of the most vulnerable groups of consumers (such as pregnant women and children under 6 years of age), the percentage of those who do not think or are unaware of its risks is extremely high. These results highlight the importance of designing and implementing information and communication activities that are aimed at warning people living in the DR and GR about the potential health risks associated with the excessive consumption of billfish.

In the present paper we analyze and discuss about the records referring to animal poisonings and poisoned baits cases covering the period between 2007 and 2013 and submitted for diagnostic investigations to the Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), which is the public veterinary health institute competent for the north eastern Italian regions. All data were gathered by a passive surveillance system based on voluntary reporting, which became mandatory in 2009 after a decree of the Italian Ministry of Health had come into force. This prohibited the use and detention of poisoned baits and ordered to selected institutions and professionals to carry out standardized surveys to assess suspect and/or confirmed reported cases; all the necessary anatomopathological and toxicological investigations to confirm the reported cases were then performed for free by public veterinary health institutes whenever a veterinarian diagnosis or clinical suspicion were provided. Totally, 1831 suspected animals poisoning and 698 cases of supposed poisoned baits recovery episodes were registered. 642/1831 (35.1%) animal poisoning cases were confirmed and the presence of toxic agents was verified in 292/698 baits (41.8%). The most severely affected territories were the ones with the highest level of urbanization and those most densely populated in the study area. Dogs and cats seemed to be greatly affected by poisoning cases and a characteristic seasonal trend was noticed, with an increase of episodes in late Winter/early Spring and in Autumn. Carbamate insecticides resulted to be the main cause for animal poisoning, while anticoagulants rodenticides played a primary role among toxicants found in poisoned baits. The presented results emphasize that malicious animal poisoning is a widespread problem in north-eastern Italy. The still relevant number of reported poisoning events caused by some banned pesticides poses the problem of identifying where these substances come from and brings to light the popular knowledge about the high toxicity of these compounds. Moreover, the noticeable increase of the number of episodes registered in 2009 pointed out how the above mentioned decree may have contributed to reveal a number of hidden cases which had not been investigated before, probably due to economic reasons related to the costs of toxicological analyses.

A severe episode of high and abnormal mortality was observed in the population of Cyprinus carpio of Lake Caldaro (South Tyrol, Italy) in summer 2016. The diagnostic investigation carried out led to the identification of Koi Herpesvirus (KHV) as the etiologic agent. Following this disease outbreak and its socio-economic consequences, the local authorities, in agreement with the local Fishing Association, decided to implement a surveillance program for the achievement of KHV-free health status (Category I) in the Province, in accordance to the Implementing Decision (EU) 2015/1554. The selected area was a defined geographical compartment (the Monticolo lakes compartment, South Tyrol, Italy), which is located near Lake Caldaro, where the Koi Herpesvirus disease (KHVD) outbreak had occurred. This area is of particular interest because it supplies other water bodies with juvenile C. carpio individuals; with the achievement of a KHV-free health status, South Tyrol could possibly become independent in the breeding of this fish species. Suitable samples were collected and processed during a two-year period in order to detect the presence/absence of KHV. The same samples were tested for other viruses that can affect carp, namely spring viraemia of carp (SVCV) and carp edema virus (CEV). According to the results, the authors conclude that the Monticolo lakes area should be classified as KHV-free, as no sample has tested positively for the presence of this specific virus (KHV).

Purpose of the present study was to evaluate the total Hg (THg) level in Billfish caught in the Western Central Atlantic and to assess the potential health consequences due to consumption for people living in Grenada (GR) and in the Dominican Republic (DR). Consumption data were collected through the administration of an online questionnaire and THg was measured in samples of Atlantic sailfish (Istiophorus platypterus, n = 38), Blue Marlin (Makaira nigricans, n = 62) and White marlin (Kajikia albida, n = 45) collected at the main fish landing point in GR and in DR. The potential health risk for different consumer groups was evaluated by calculating the estimated metal weekly intake rate (MWIR; μg kg−1 body weight), that was compared to the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) for methylmercury (MeHg), and the total hazard quotient (THQ). A conservative approach was applied considering that THg was detected in its more toxic form, i.e. MeHg. The following levels of THg values were detected: Blue Marlin (0.09–6.23 mg kg−1), White Marlin (0.05–3.21 mg kg−1) and Atlantic sailfish (0.03–0.64 mg kg−1). For average consumers, the estimated MWIR minimally contributed to the PTWI and the THQ values turned out to be far below 1 in both the studied countries. Differently, the results regarding high consumers (95 percentile) raised some concerns.

In this study, heavy metal levels detected in molluscs produced in the Veneto Region (north-western Adriatic Sea) are presented and discussed. A descriptive analysis was conducted on data collected in the framework of official monitoring activities in shellfish production areas between 2007 and 2012. Concentrations of lead (Pb), mercury (Hg) and cadmium (Cd) in about 2000 samples of 17 different species of marine bivalve molluscs, echinoderms and gastropods were checked by means of atomic absorption spectrometry. Hg and Pb concentrations were always below the maximum levels set by the European legislation; 2.2% of the analysed samples exceeded the threshold level for Cd, 86.7% of witch belonging to purple dye murex ( Bolinus brandaris ). The highest mean levels of Hg and Cd were found in purple dye murex, with 0.10 mg kg −1 and 0.88 mg kg −1 respectively, while rayed trough shell ( Mactra stultorum ) and truncate donax ( Donax trunculus ) were the species with the highest mean value of Pb (0.25 mg kg −1 ). Species of major consumption showed mean values almost ten times lower than the limits set by the European legislation (Manila clam: Pb: 0.20 mg kg −1 ; Hg: 0.04 mg kg −1 ; Cd: 0.07 mg kg −1 ; Mediterranean mussel: Pb: 0.22 mg kg −1 ; Hg: 0.03 mg kg −1 ; Cd: 0.13 mg kg −1 ). A preliminary evaluation of the impact on human health of shellfish according to the detected levels indicates that the species of major consumption are safe for the average consumers, although a potential risk cannot be ruled out for vulnerable groups, such as women of childbearing potential and children, as well as for regular or high-level shellfish consumers, particularly those who frequently eat species such as murex.

Introduction Fish kills are events of strong emotional impact on the population because of the frequent suspicion that they can be the result of serious pollution accidents. As a matter of fact, they are often due to natural occurrences, such as low levels of dissolved oxygen in the water, but in many cases the causes remain unknown. Fish are particularly sensitive to pesticides and pyrethroids are reported to be the most ecotoxicologically active in the aquatic environment. Nevertheless, the reported cases of massive wild fish mortalities due to these toxicants are very few. This paper describes a fish kill episode occurred in the Padua Province (Veneto Region — North Eastern Italy) which involved several fish species and for which it was possible to identify the cause in the presence of pyrethroids in the water. Case presentation When a whitish liquid coming from the rainwater drain of an industrial area was seen to be spilling into a drainage channel, a fish massive mortality was noticed and investigated. The collected water samples showed the presence of relevant concentrations of cypermethrin, permethrin, deltamethrin and tetramethrin. Analyses on the fish tissues revealed the presence of cypermethrin and permethrin at a concentration range of 476–2834 μg/kg and 346–2826 μg/kg on a lipid basis, respectively. Discussion According to the results of the performed analyses, we can reasonably state that the described episode had been caused by the exposure of biota to high concentrations of pyrethroids. The present case report significantly contributes to the limited literature available on pesticides-related fish kills. Moreover, it highlights the importance of sharing protocols for fish kill management at a national level, as this would help to better define the roles of the different institutions involved and to improve the investigation and the reporting of these events.

We developed a model to calculate a quantitative risk score for individual aquaculture sites. The score indicates the risk of the site being infected with a specific fish pathogen (viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV); infectious haematopoietic necrosis virus, Koi herpes virus), and is intended to be used for risk ranking sites to support surveillance for demonstration of zone or member state freedom from these pathogens. The inputs to the model include a range of quantitative and qualitative estimates of risk factors organised into five risk themes (1) Live fish and egg movements; (2) Exposure via water; (3) On-site processing; (4) Short-distance mechanical transmission; (5) Distance-independent mechanical transmission. The calculated risk score for an individual aquaculture site is a value between zero and one and is intended to indicate the risk of a site relative to the risk of other sites (thereby allowing ranking). The model was applied to evaluate 76 rainbow trout farms in 3 countries (42 from England, 32 from Italy and 2 from Switzerland) with the aim to establish their risk of being infected with VHSV. Risk scores for farms in England and Italy showed great variation, clearly enabling ranking. Scores ranged from 0.002 to 0.254 (mean score 0.080) in England and 0.011 to 0.778 (mean of 0.130) for Italy, reflecting the diversity of infection status of farms in these countries. Requirements for broader application of the model are discussed. Cost efficient farm data collection is important to realise the benefits from a risk-based approach.

Infectious haematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) and viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) are the most important viral pathogens impacting rainbow trout farming. These viruses are persistent in Italy, where they are responsible for severe disease outbreaks (epizootics) that affect the profitability of the trout industry. Despite the importance of IHNV and VHSV, little is known about their evolution at a local scale, although this is likely to be important for virus eradication and control. To address this issue we performed a detailed molecular evolutionary and epidemiological analysis of IHNV and VHSV in trout farms from northern Italy. Full-length glycoprotein gene sequences of a selection of VHSV (n = 108) and IHNV (n = 89) strains were obtained. This revealed that Italian VHSV strains belong to sublineages Ia1 and Ia2 of genotype Ia and are distributed into 7 genetic clusters. In contrast, all Italian IHNV isolates fell within genogroup E, for which only a single genetic cluster was identified. More striking was that IHNV has evolved more rapidly than VHSV (mean rates of 11 and 7.3 × 10(-4) nucleotide substitutions per site, per year, respectively), indicating that these viruses exhibit fundamentally different evolutionary dynamics. The time to the most recent common ancestor of both IHNV and VHSV was consistent with the first reports of these pathogens in Italy. By combining sequence data with epidemiological information it was possible to identify different patterns of virus spread among trout farms, in which adjacent facilities can be infected by either genetically similar or different viruses, and farms located in different water catchments can be infected by identical strains. Overall, these findings highlight the importance of combining molecular and epidemiological information to identify the determinants of IHN and VHS spread, and to provide data that is central to future surveillance strategies and possibly control.

Between the month of October 1997 and January 1998, eight outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza were diagnosed in the Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia regions in north-eastern Italy. For each of the eight outbreaks, influenza A virus of subtype H5N2 was isolated and the inoculation of susceptible chickens confirmed these viruses to be extremely virulent with intravenous pathogenicity indices in 6-week-old chickens of 2.98 to 3.00. Although it was not possible to trace the origin of infection, the epidemiological investigation revealed connections between several outbreaks and emphasized the well-known risk factors for avian influenza such as bird movement, rearing of mixed populations and contact with migratory waterfowl. Control measures listed in European Union directive 92/40/EEC were implemented promptly and spread of the infection to intensively-reared domestic poultry was avoided.

International audience; Canine distemper virus (CDV) infection represents an important conservation threat to many carnivore species and has contributed to the population decline of several wild terrestrial and aquatic mammalian species. Since 2006, the Alpine region of North-Eastern (NE) Italy has been experiencing a severe and widespread outbreak of CDV affecting the wild carnivore population. In this study we performed an extensive phylogenetic and molecular evolutionary analysis of CDV identified during the recent wildlife epidemic in the Alpine region. Our analysis yielded data on the evolutionary dynamics of the Alpine wildlife CDV epidemic and revealed the emergence and spread of a single genetic cluster of CDV. The wide distribution of the novel cluster combined with the identification of a specific amino acid mutation, which is believed to increase the ability of the virus to replicate in a wider host range, raises concerns over the possible implications of the spread of this virus on the conservation of endangered wildlife species.

Meat-type turkey farms in Verona province (Veneto, Italy) have been affected by three low-pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) epidemics between 2000 and 2004. Control measures implemented ranged from stamping out to controlled marketing in conjunction with restocking bans and movement restriction on live poultry, vehicles, and personnel. These measures were complemented with two emergency vaccination programs (2000-01, 2002-03) started after the beginning of the epidemics, while 2004 outbreaks occurred in vaccinated farms. The three epidemics differed in the number of outbreaks, duration, and economic impact. The aim of the investigation was to estimate the risk of infection and the effect of vaccination on the LPAI epidemics affecting turkey farms in Verona province. Farm probability to avoid infection (Ps) was calculated by Kaplan-Meier for each epidemic. The vaccination effect was evaluated for the 2000-01 and 2002-03 epidemics considering different risk before or after the emergency vaccination. The epidemics and vaccination entered as predictors in a Cox regression model and hazard ratios (HR) were calculated. Ps values at the end of the epidemics were as follows: 2000-01 = 0.66, 2002-03 = 0.51, and 2004 = 0.91. Vaccination reduced dramatically the risk of infection. The measures implemented had different effects on the three epidemics. The lower probability of being infected during the 2004 epidemic was most likely related to the protection level of the vaccinated farms acquired before the beginning of the epidemic, which was also responsible for the reduced spread of infection.

The objective of this study was the estimation of the exposure over time to heavy metals (cadmium, mercury and lead) due to shellfish consumption in the Veneto Region, Italy. Shellfish consumption was investigated by a food frequency consumption survey. Altogether, 1949 households, stratified into the five most populated areas of the Veneto Region, were involved in the study. Exposure estimation to heavy metals was carried out taking into account the level of metal measured in samples of Manila clams (Ruditapes philippinarum) and grooved carpetshell (Ruditapes decussatus), collected in the frame of the monitoring activities of mollusk production areas of Veneto Region, between January 2007 and December 2012. A general high contribution of the considered shellfish to the Tolerable Weekly Intake (TWI) was noticed in the case of cadmium, especially in 2011, when a considerable increase in cadmium intake was estimated. This was probably due to a heavy rainfall event that triggered catastrophic flooding with high impact on shellfish capture areas in November 2010. The results strongly emphasise the importance of dealing with food safety in a holistic way, taking into account the potential impact of extraordinary natural events on food chain contamination, in order to identify food hazards at an early stage, before developing into a real risk for consumers.

A case-control study was undertaken to provide information about the role of some husbandry practices and farm characteristics in the epidemiology of bovine tuberculosis in the Veneto Region. Twenty-seven breeding herds where a positive result to the single intradermal cervical tuberculin test was confirmed by post-mortem examination were compared with seventy-four herds which had been free of the disease for at least three years. Epidemiological information was collected on farms. The factors taken into account in the study were chosen on the basis of their epidemiological plausibility and of the local livestock characteristics. Multiple logistic regression was applied to analyse the data. Factors identified as possibly involved in increasing the risk of bovine tuberculosis in the Veneto Region were the presence of mixed (dairy and beef) enterprises (OR = 4.9, P = 0.001) and of cattle purchase (OR = 5.8; P = 0.003). Other factors (such as herd size, housing system, summer mountain pasture, possible contact with wild animals, and indirect contacts with other herds) did not appear to significantly contribute to tuberculosis presence in this area. The results of this case-control study support the hypothesis that in the Veneto Region bovine tuberculosis infection is still associated with classical risk factors both (directly or indirectly) related to cattle movements.

La gestion d’urgence des maladies animales est essentielle lors d’apparition de foyers de maladies contagieuses dans un pays ou une zone indemne d’infection. Dans de telles circonstances, les maladies animales peuvent entrainer des consequences socioeconomiques graves dans un pays ou une zone donnes. Ces maladies peuvent egalement se propager facilement et atteindre des dimensions epizootiques, ce qui necessite alors l’intervention commune et coordonnee de plusieurs pays.

The success of emergency intervention to control contagious animal diseases is dependent on the preparedness of veterinary services. In the framework of avian influenza preparedness, the Italian Ministry of Health, in cooperation with the National Reference Centers for Epidemiology and Avian Influenza, implemented an electronic learning course using new web-based information and communication technologies. The course was designed to train veterinary officers involved in disease outbreak management, laboratory diagnosis, and policy making. The "blended learning model" was applied, involving participants in tutor-supported self-learning, collaborative learning activities, and virtual classes. The course duration was 16 hr spread over a 4-wk period. Six editions were implemented for 705 participants. All participants completed the evaluation assignments, and the drop out rate was very low (only 4%). This project increased the number of professionals receiving high-quality training on AI in Italy, while reducing expenditure and maximizing return on effort.

Emergency management of animal diseases is required when there are outbreaks of contagious diseases in a country or region that is free of infection. Under these circumstances, animal diseases have the potential to cause serious socio-economic consequences in a given country or area. Such diseases may also spread easily and reach epidemic proportions, thus requiring joint and coordinated interventions between several countries.

In 1999–2000, Italian poultry production was disrupted by an H7N1 virus subtype epidemic of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI). The objectives of the present study were to identify risk factors for infection on poultry farms located in regions that had the highest number of outbreaks (Veneto and Lombardia) and the impact of pre-emptive culling as a complementary measure for eradicating infection. A Cox regression model that included spatial factors, such as the G index, was used. The results confirmed the relationship between risk of infection and poultry species, production type and size of farms. The effectiveness of pre-emptive culling was confirmed. An increased risk of infection was observed for poultry farms located near an infected farm and those at altitudes less than 150 m above sea level. The measures for the control and eradication of AI virus infection need to consider species differences in susceptibility, the types of production and the density of poultry farms in the affected areas.

When outbreaks of avian influenza (AI) occur in poultry populations, the main goal to achieve is the control and eradication of the infection. However, quantitative information on risk factors for AI spread and efficacy of AI control measures such as vaccination in the field is limited. From 2000 to 2005, H5 and H7 low pathogenicity (LP) AI viruses caused four epidemics in poultry in northeastern Italy. Italian veterinary authorities implemented emergency vaccination in the 2000–2001 and 2002–2003 LPAI epidemics and prophylactic vaccination from July 2004. The aim of this study is to quantitatively evaluate the efficacy of AI vaccination in the field, taking into account the different strategies (emergency and prophylactic) implemented. Moreover, risk factors for LPAI spread in domestic poultry were studied. By survival analysis, we observed a two-fold increase in survival probability for vaccinated poultry farms compared to unvaccinated ones. In meat turkeys, vaccination protocols changed in the different epidemics, and a relationship between protection and the number of vaccinations was observed; two or three vaccine administrations protected flocks from LPAI, whilst four administrations did not significantly reduce the risk of infection. In meat turkeys the risk of AI infection increased also with the increase in both farm size and proximity to an infected farm. In general, we observed a lower number of outbreaks and a faster eradication of the infection when LPAI viruses introduced in a preventively vaccinated poultry population. This study provides insights on LPAI vaccination efficacy and on risk factors involved in LPAI infection at farm level. To our knowledge, this is the first study which quantitatively evaluates AI vaccination efficacy and compares different vaccination strategies and protocols using field data.

Italian poultry production was affected by several outbreaks of low-pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) between 2000 and 2005. Intervention measures (IM), such as stamping out of infected and suspected farms, controlled marketing, restocking bans, movement restriction, and emergency vaccination, were put into force in the most affected areas of Lombardia and Veneto regions. These two regions also showed differences in terms of measures applied and timeliness of application. In this study we describe the epidemics and discuss the effectiveness of the IM put into effect. The regional surveillance systems provided the data on the epidemics and the IM description. The IM effectiveness was compared between the different epidemics and the Lombardia and Veneto regions, considering the number of farms involved, the duration of the epidemics, and the extension of the area affected. With regard to the IM applied, reductions in the number of outbreaks (from 388 in 2002-03 to 15 in 2005), the duration of the outbreaks (from more than 1 yr to approximately 1 mo), and the spatial extension of the outbreaks (from 89 to 8 municipalities involved) were observed. The emergency vaccination, depopulation, and pre-emptive slaughtering reduced significantly the spread of the epidemic. Comparing the dynamics of the epidemics, more effective results were observed in the Veneto region, where the IM were applied to a greater extent. Emergency vaccination and depopulation were effective in the eradication of the disease during an epidemic, but vaccination and farm density reduction showed the most effective results in controlling the spread of LPAI.

From the end of March to the beginning of December 1999, 199 outbreaks of low pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) were diagnosed in the Veneto and Lombardia regions, which are located in the northern part of Italy. The virus responsible for the epidemic was characterized as a type A influenza virus of the H7N1 subtype of low pathogenicity. On the 17th of December, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) was diagnosed in a meat turkey flock in which 100% mortality was observed in 72 h. The infection spread to the industrial poultry population of northern Italy including chickens, guinea-fowl, quail, pheasants, ducks and ostriches for a total of 413 outbreaks. Over 13 million birds were affected by the epidemic, which caused dramatic economic losses to the Italian poultry industry with severe social and economic implications. The possibility of H7 virus transmission to humans in close contact with the outbreaks was evaluated through a serological survey. Seven hundred and fifty nine sera were collected and tested for the detection of anti-H7 antibodies by means of the micro-neutralization (MN) and single radial haemolysis (SRH) tests. All samples resulted negative. A limited number of clinical samples were also collected for attempted virus isolation with negative results. Current European legislation considers LPAI and HPAI as two completely distinct diseases, not contemplating any compulsory eradication policy for LPAI and requiring eradication for HPAI. Evidence collected during the Italian 1999–2000 epidemic indicates that LPAI due to viruses of the H7 subtype may mutate to HPAI, and, therefore, LPAI caused by viruses of the H5 or H7 subtypes must be controlled to avoid the emergence of HPAI. A reconsideration of the current definition of avian influenza adopted by the EU, could possibly be an aid to avoiding devastating epidemics for the poultry industry in Member States.

Since 2006 the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) population in north-eastern Italy has experienced an epidemic of canine distemper virus (CDV). Additionally, in 2008, after a thirteen-year absence from Italy, fox rabies was re-introduced in the Udine province at the national border with Slovenia. Disease intervention strategies are being developed and implemented to control rabies in this area and minimise risk to human health. Here we present empirical data and the epidemiological picture relating to these epidemics in the period 2006-2010. Of important significance for epidemiological studies of wild animals, basic mathematical models are developed to exploit information collected from the surveillance program on dead and/or living animals in order to assess the incidence of infection. These models are also used to estimate the rate of transmission of both diseases and the rate of vaccination, while correcting for a bias in early collection of CDV samples. We found that the rate of rabies transmission was roughly twice that of CDV, with an estimated effective contact between infected and susceptible fox leading to a new infection occurring once every 3 days for rabies, and once a week for CDV. We also inferred that during the early stage of the CDV epidemic, a bias in the monitoring protocol resulted in a positive sample being almost 10 times more likely to be collected than a negative sample. We estimated the rate of intake of oral vaccine at 0.006 per day, allowing us to estimate that roughly 68% of the foxes would be immunised. This was confirmed by field observations. Finally we discuss the implications for the eco-epidemiological dynamics of both epidemics in relation to control measures.

The present work describes the first Italian Koi Herpes Virus (KHV) outbreak where the infectious agent was isolated and genetically characterized. At the beginning of April 2012, a batch of koi (Cyprinus carpio koi) was imported from Israel by a wholesale facility located in North-Eastern Italy. Fish, originating from different farms, were shipped separately but maintained together in the same tank upon arrival. Three weeks after the introduction of fish, an increased mortality was recorded. Typical clinical and pathological signs of koi herpesvirus disease (KHVD) were observed: enophthalmia, skin erosion, gill hemorrhages and necrosis, pale and enlarged kidney. The histological analysis of symptomatic koi allowed the detection of typical pale intranuclear inclusions in gill epithelium, intestinal lamina propria and kidney. Viral isolation yielded positive results and KHV isolation was confirmed by immunofluorescence. Conventional and real time PCR substantiated the presence of Cyprinid Herpesvirus type 3 (CyHV-3) belonging to the U/I lineage. Mortality in the koi tank reached 82.5% and the few surviving fish were culled by the Official Veterinary Inspector. Epidemiological data and laboratory results suggested that the virus likely originated from Israel.

In Sudafrica esistono zone di quarantena per i cavalli al fine di poterli movimentare verso paesi esteri senza esportare la African Horse Sickness (Peste Equina), patologia che prevede lo stesso vettore della febbre catarrale degli ovini. Tali zone sono caratterizzate da abbondanza di terreni prevalentemente salmastri. Questo dato, nonchè le osservazioni raccolte in Sardegna durante le diverse ondate epidemiche susseguitesi nel periodo 2000- 2007, che hanno fatto rilevare come alcuni allevamenti di specifici territori (penisola del Sinis, Giara di Gesturi, ecc.) mostravano una morbilità - mortalità estremamente ridotta rispetto agli allevamenti circostanti - se non addirittura rappresentano una sorta di enclave circoscritta -, hanno suggerito di effettuare specifici sopralluoghi finalizzati alla valutazione geologica dei suoli. È stata anche valutata la compatibilità di questi territori con l’habitat ideale per l’insetto vettore e contemporaneamente con gli altri fattori di rischio noti, correlati allo sviluppo di Culicoides imicola e, di conseguenza, all’ingresso del virus e al possibile sviluppo di focolai di Blue Tongue. Dalla verifica dei suoli e dalla sovrapposizione delle mappe della mortalità osservata nel corso della prima epidemia di Blue Tongue (2000-2001), si è rilevato che il danno osservato nei focolai non era distribuito omogeneamente nel territorio. Al fine di validare il presupposto scientifico citato in premessa (terreni salmastri), si è verificato puntualmente quanto accaduto durante la prima epidemia in alcuni comuni della Sardegna, per i quali si era in possesso della georeferenziazione degli allevamenti sede di focolaio, verificando il tipo di suolo nel quale tali allevamenti insistevano. Dall’analisi dei dati è emerso che esistono forti correlazioni tra la tipologia di pH del suolo, unito alla granulometria e al drenaggio dello stesso. I tipi di suolo sono individuabili in Acidi o sub acidi (AC) e Neutri, Subalcalini o Alcalini (AK). Si sono individuate in funzione del tipo di suolo due categorie di allevamenti sede di focolaio ed è stata verificata la differenza esistente tra le somme dei danni totali osservate negli allevamenti appartenenti ai due gruppi (AC vs AK), che si è mostrata statisticamente significativa. Questo dato di estremo interesse pare confermare l’assunto teorico basato sulla ipotesi che certi terreni sono meno favorenti lo sviluppo di C. imicola, con una forte correlazione con il pH del terreno stesso. L’applicazione pratica di tale osservazione è quella che si sta cercando di attuare in Sardegna ovvero quella di “alcalinizzare” i siti considerati di massimo rischio per la riproduzione dell’insetto vettore situati in prossimità di allevamenti ovicaprini, attraverso l’utilizzo di alcune sostanze (es. latte di calce), in quantità e modalità valutate in funzione della tipologia di suolo e della relativa permeabilità dello stesso. Viene descritta l’esperienza in un sito pilota e i risultati preliminari ottenuti.