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Carinata (Brassica carinata A. Braun) is a potential crop for biofuel production, but the risk of injury resulting from carryover of soil herbicides used in rotational crops is of concern. The present study evaluated the carryover risk of imazapic and flumioxazin for carinata. Label rates of imazapic (70 g ai ha−1) and flumioxazin (107 g ai ha−1) were applied 24, 18, 12, 6, and 3 mo before carinata planting (MBP). The same herbicides were applied preemergence right after carinata planting at 1X, 0.5X, 0.25X, 0.125X, 0.063X, and 0X the label rate. When either herbicide was applied earlier than 3 MBP, there was no difference in plant density compared with the nontreated control. Carinata damage was 25%. Quantification of herbicide residues in both soils showed that imazapic moved deeper in the soil profile than flumioxazin. This was more evident in Jackson Springs, where 0.68, 3.52, and 7.77 ng of imazapic g−1 soil were detected (15- to 20-cm depth) when the herbicide was applied at 12, 6 and 3 MBP, respectively, while no flumioxazin residues were detected at the same soil depths and times. When residues were 7.78 and 6.90 ng herbicide g−1 soil in the top 10 cm of soil for imazapic and flumioxazin, respectively, carinata exhibited at least 25% damage. Rotational intervals to avoid imazapic and flumioxazin damage to carinata should be between 6 and 12 MBP depending on soil type and environmental conditions, with longer intervals for the former than the latter.

Seed germination is one of the most important processes in plant biology and ecology because it determines the timing and magnitude of seedling emergence events every growing season influencing community dynamics. Our aim was to determine whether polyethylene glycol (PEG) solutions simulate soil water potential accurately and recreate germination responses to soil water availability. In this study, we compared seed germination of four plant species in PEG and four soils with different textures under six water potentials under controlled laboratory conditions. Total seed germination for all species significantly differed between soil and PEG under the same water potentials, as well as among soil water potentials for each of PEG and soil materials. Due to the inconsistent total germination associated with soil water potential, we evaluated unsaturated soil hydraulic conductivity (Kh) as a predictor of germination. The germination of all species followed the same response to Kh. Germination rate (GR50) was more directly related to water potential than total germination, but Kh provided a more robust description of GR50 across species and soils than PEG-osmotic potentials. Our findings showed that Kh is a more informative variable to predict both total seed germination and germination rate in soil, and caution must be used when considering results obtained using PEG solutions to infer germination behavior under field conditions.

Oxisols have been previously reported in Costa Rica. However, few studies provided specific data to corroborate their presence and explain their genesis under different soil-forming factors. This study was performed with the aim to confirm Oxisols occurrence in different landscapes and parent materials in Costa Rica. Eight pedons were sampled, described, characterized, and classified according to Soil Taxonomy in five landscapes. All pedons studied presented clay contents above 40% in surface horizons. Subsurface horizons presented red colors, high contents of low-activity clay minerals with cation exchange capacity values at pH 7 (CEC7) less than 16 cmolc kg−1 clay and less than 9.6% weatherable minerals in the sand fraction. The suborders Ustox, Udox and Perox were identified. Among the Ustox, three contrasting subgroups were identified: Kandiustalfic Eustrustox, Plinthic Kandiustox, and Anionic Acrustox. Conversely, soils classified into the suborder Udox presented the same great group: Kandiudox; with three subgroups identified: Typic Kandiudox, Plinthic Kandiudox, and Rhodic Kandiudox. In addition, one pedon was classified into the suborder Perox, with the subgroup Andic Haploperox. The diversity in geologic materials (basaltic, pyroclastic, and sedimentary rocks), geomorphology (mountains, plains, dissected volcanic cones, and Quaternary alluvial fans), and the climatic conditions (total annual rainfall ranged from 1853 to 5780 mm year−1) observed in the studied areas made possible the diverse taxonomic classification for the eight Oxisols. Results obtained confirmed occurrence of Oxisols in Costa Rica and verify soil classification from previous literature reports. Our findings in soil genesis and forming factors enhance the knowledge in pedogenesis and properties of advanced weathering stage soils in Central America. UCR::Vicerrectoría de Investigación::Unidades de Investigación::Ciencias Agroalimentarias::Centro de Investigaciones Agronómicas (CIA)

Long-term preservation of experimental fungi without genetic, morphological, and pathogenic changes is of paramount importance in mycological and plant pathological investigations. Several cryogenic and non-cryogenic methods are available for the preservation of fungi, but the methods can be cumbersome, hazardous, expensive, and often not suitable for long-term storage of non-spore-forming (sterile) fungi. A method of preservation of spore-forming fungi in commercially available porous beads (Micrbank™) under cryogenic condition was successfully tested for three non-spore-forming basidiomycetes genera: Rhizoctonia solani (teleomorph: Thanatephorus cucumeris) (n = 19), Ceratobasidium species (n = 1), and Waitea circinata (n = 3), and a non-spore forming ascomycetes , Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (n = 1). For comparison, spore-forming ascomycetous fungi, Alternaria alternata (n = 1), Bauveria basiana (n = 2), Botrytis cinerea (n = 1), Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. gladiolii (n = 1), Trichoderma spp. (n = 3), and Thielaviopsis basicola (n = 2) were also cryopreserved in Microbank beads. Viable fungal isolates of all test species were retrieved after five years of storage at −80 °C, which was longer than the viabilities of the corresponding isolates cryopreserved in agar plugs or colonized wheat seeds. Fungi revived from the Microbank beads maintained identical morphology and cultural characteristics of the parent isolates. Randomly selected Rhizoctonia isolates revived from the Microbank beads maintained respective pathological properties of the parent isolates; also, no mutation was detected in the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) ribosomal DNA when compared with respective cultures maintained at ambient temperature. This finding demonstrated the utility of cryopreservation in Microbank beads as a convenient alternative to conventional long-term preservation of a wide group of fungal cultures for plant pathological investigations and serves as the first report of using porous beads under cryogenic conditions for long-term storage of sterile fungi.

The precise determination of landforms and their formation processes are key to accomplish detailed soil mapping and better understand of soil genesis. The Upper General River Basin is located at the southeast of Costa Rica on the transition between Cordillera de Talamanca and General River Valley, forming an extensive alluvial fan sequence. Our work aims to determine the soil–geomorphology relationships on these alluvial fans. The methods employed consisted of geomorphological mapping using 1:25,000 aerial photographs to determine five alluvial fans: buried inactive, modeled inactive, early, intermediate, and late. Soil maps were established by combining landforms with soil survey data that allowed to differentiate twelve soil units of Ultisols associated with Oxisols, Inceptisols and Entisols. The most weathered soils were classified as Anionic and were Acrustox found on the oldest landforms located on buried inactive and early alluvial fans. These soils were found associated with Typic Rhodustults and Ustic Haplohumults. Typic Ustifluvents occurred on early alluvial fans and modeled inactive alluvial fans. Similar morphologic and chemical characteristics of the evaluated Oxisols were found for soils previously classified as Ultisols. These findings support the hypothesis that many soil currently classified as Ultisols could be reclassified as Oxisols (if the appropriate mineralogical analyses were conducted). These results put in perspective that the origin of the fans and hence their ages control the consequent soil development. In addition, the study contextualizes the implications of mapping and classifying highly weathered tropical soils for territorial planning, agricultural management and natural resources conservation. UCR::Vicerrectoría de Investigación::Unidades de Investigación::Ciencias Agroalimentarias::Centro de Investigaciones Agronómicas (CIA)

Vochysia guatemalensis Donn. Smith is a native species commonly used in small-scale reforestation programs in Costa Rica recognized for its fast growth under acidic and unfertile soil conditions. This study aimed to evaluate the nutrient concentration dynamics on individual trees of V. guatemalensis of increasing ages, in order to improve the understanding some aspects of its ecology as well as management of this tree species. Nutrient (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, and B) and Al concentration in stems, branches and foliage were measured using false time series (also known as chronosequences) in 13 different tree stands (2–21 years) found in the Caribbean lowlands of Costa Rica. N, K and S concentrations in the stems showed a significant inverse relationship with DBH; while P, S, and Cu foliar contents increased with DBH. Average foliar concentrations of N, Ca, K, Mg, Fe, Zn, Mn, B, and Al showed little or no variation with tree growth. Foliar Al concentration (21, 297–28, 826 mg kg−1) was higher than previously reported as toxic for non-Al accumulating species (

Se planteó el presente estudio con el objetivo de estudiar la dinámica de la concentración y la acumulación de nutrimentos en árboles de Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae), para mejorar el conocimiento y la gestión de las plantaciones forestales tropicales. Mediante una serie falsa de tiempo (crono secuencia) compuesta por 15 plantaciones en bosque Muy Húmedo Tropical de Costa Rica, se determinó la biomasa aérea, la concentración de nutrimentos y se estimó su acumulación en los componentes de la biomasa en árboles seleccionados. Como resultado se obtuvo que la concentración de los nutrimentos presentó tendencia a disminuir en el orden: nitrógeno > potasio > magnesio > calcio > azufre > fósforo para los macro nutrimentos, mientras que los micro elementos siguen la secuencia hierro > boro > zinc > manganeso > cobre > aluminio.Destacaron los altos valores de concentración de potasio medidos en los pecíolos (1,46 ± 0,48%) en contraste con contenidos más bajos de este elemento en el follaje (1,09 ± 0,21%). Se desarrolló modelos de regresión lineal para evaluar el comportamiento de la concentración de nutrimentos y se observó tendencia a la disminución de la concentración nitrógeno, fósforo, potasio y magnesio con el incremento de la edad, al ser este comportamiento más evidente en el potasio del fuste. Por otro lado, los modelos de regresión generados para evaluar el comportamiento de la acumulación de nutrimentos en los distintos componentes de la biomasa presentaron un comportamiento exponencial, con significancia estadística principalmente en el fuste y en el total acumulado. Dichos modelos permiten estimar posibles salidas de nutrimentos del sitio de plantación durante la cosecha, así como el reciclaje de cantidades de nutrimentos en componentes de la biomasa que permanecen en el sitio de plantación.

Se evaluó el uso de fertilizantes líquidos con Si, Ca o Mg sobre el crecimiento del sorgo (Sorghum bicolor) en un Ultisol bajo invernadero. Se utilizaron 2 silicatos de potasio, carbonato de calcio y óxido de magnesio, todos en líquidos aplicados al suelo en dosis de 2 y 4 ml.pote-1, y un testigo, en un diseño irrestricto al azar con 9 tratamientos y 4 repeticiones. Las variables de crecimiento, evaluadas 45 días después de siembra, fueron peso seco de raíz y de parte aérea. Se realizó un análisis de suelos y de planta al final del ensayo. Las aplicaciones de Ca y de Mg incrementaron de manera significativa el crecimiento y la absorción de nutrimentos del sorgo. El carbonato de calcio promovió los valores más altos de biomasa seca y de absorción de N, P, Ca, S, Cu, Zn, Mn y B. Las fuentes de Si no tuvieron efectos significativos sobre la biomasa del sorgo, a excepción del silicato de K con Ca y Mg en dosis de 4 ml.pote-1, que además produjo un incremento significativo en la absorción de K. El carbonato de calcio y el óxido de magnesio incrementaron significativamente el pH, disminuyeron la acidez y el Al intercambiable, y aumentaron los contenidos de Ca o Mg en el suelo. The effect of liquid fertilizers with Si, Ca or Mg on the growth of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) was evaluated in an Ultisol under greenhouse conditions. Four liquid fertilizers (two potassium silicates, calcium carbonate and magnesium oxide) were applied into the soil in liquids at doses of 2 and 4 ml.pot-1, plus a control, in a randomized unrestricted design with 9 treatments and 4 replicates. Growth variables, assessed 45 days after sowing, were dry weight of root and aerial parts. Analysis of soil and plant at the end of the test was performed. The application of Ca and Mg significantly increased growth and nutrient uptake of sorghum. Liquid calcium carbonate promoted the highest values of dry biomass and absorption of N, P, Ca, S, Cu, Zn, Mn and B. Si sources had no significant effects on biomass, except for K silicate with Ca and Mg at the dose of 4 ml.pot-1, which also produced a significant increase in K absorption. Calcium carbonate and magnesium oxide significantly increased soil pH and decreased exchangeable acidity and Al, and also increased Ca or Mg content in the soil. UCR::Vicerrectoría de Investigación::Unidades de Investigación::Ciencias Agroalimentarias::Centro de Investigaciones Agronómicas (CIA)

Resumen:El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar el efecto de la aplicación de enmiendas líquidas en un Ultisol cultivado con sorgo. Esta investigación se realizó entre agosto y noviembre del 2011 en el Centro de Investigaciones Agronómicas, San José, Costa Rica. En potes de 800 ml de un Ultisol sembrado con sorgo, se aplicaron los siguientes tratamientos: testigo sin cal, carbonato de calcio en dosis de 10 y 20 l/ha, óxido de magnesio en dosis de 10 y 20 l/ha, carbonato de calcio + óxido de magnesio en dosis de 5 + 5 y 10 + 10 l/ha, respectivamente. Las plantas fueron cosechadas a las seis semanas, a las que se les determinó área foliar, peso seco y fresco de biomasa aérea y radicular, absorción de nutrimentos y características químicas del suelo. Los tratamientos de carbonato de calcio y en mezcla con óxido de magnesio obtuvieron los mejores valores de área foliar y los valores más altos de peso fresco y seco tanto para raíz como parte aérea del sorgo. No hubo diferencias significativas entre tratamientos de cal líquida pero si con respecto al testigo sin cal con las variables de peso de biomasa. El carbonato de calcio líquido aumentó la absorción de Ca de forma significativa, y el tratamiento de carbonato + óxido en dosis de 10 l/ha presentó la mayor absorción de Mg. Todos los tratamientos de enmiendas causaron un mejoramiento de la fertilidad del suelo, siendo el más destacado de ellos el tratamiento de óxido de magnesio en dosis de 20 l/ha, que disminuyó la acidez intercambiable de 9,02 a 0,36 cmol(+)/l, el porcentaje de saturación de acidez bajó de 95 a 3,3% y aumentó el pH de 5,0 a 5,7. Se concluyó que las enmiendas líquidas tuvieron efecto positivo sobre el cultivo indicador y la fertilidad del suelo. Abstract:The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of the application of liquid lime on sorghum growth in an Ultisol. This research was conducted between August and November, 2011 at the Agricultural Research Center, San José, Costa Rica. In an Ultisol planted with sorghum, in pots of 800 ml, the following treatments where applied: control without lime, calcium carbonate at doses of 10 and 20 l/ha, magnesium oxide at doses of 10 and 20 l/ha, calcium carbonate + magnesium oxide at doses of 5 + 5 and 10 + 10 l/ha, respectively. Six weeks after planting, sorghum was harvested, measuring leaf area, dry and fresh weight of the aerial and root biomass, nutrient absorption and the soil chemical characteristics. Treatments using calcium carbonate and calcium carbonate + magnesium oxide obtained the best values of leaf area and the higher weight of the aerial and root biomass of sorghum. Even though there were no significant differences between liquid lime treatments, there were regarding control without lime and weight biomass variables. Liquid calcium carbonate significantly increased Ca absorption, and the calcium carbonate + magnesium oxide treatment at doses of 10 l/h showed the highest Mg absorption. All amendment treatments caused an improvement of the soil fertility, the most notable being the application of 20 l/ha of magnesium oxide that dropped the exchangeable acidity from 9.02 to 0.36 cmol(+)/l, acidity saturation dropped from 95 to 3.3%, and pH increased from 5 to 5.7. It was concluded that the liquid liming amendments had a positive effect over the crop and the soil fertility.

Mediante un estudio en el campo, se determinó el efecto de la labranza mecanizada con 3 implementos sobre la compactación, las variables físicas e hidropedológicas de un Ultisol dedicado a la ganadería, ubicado en San Mateo, Alajuela. Se seleccionó un lote de aproximadamente 10 000 m2, se dividió en 16 parcelas iguales (650 m2 cada una), y se aleatorizó la mecanización con 3 diferentes implementos correspondientes a los tratamientos, a partir de una parcela y un diseño experimental irrestricto al azar. Como tratamientos se estableció un área sin labranza (T), y labranza mediante un palín mecánico (PM), un arado de cincel (AC) o un subsolador (S). Cuarenta días después de la aplicación de los tratamientos se determinó la resistencia a la penetración cada 5 cm hasta los 50 cm de profundidad, y la humedad gravimétrica, densidad aparente y de partículas, infiltración y conductividad hidráulica fueron evaluadas, todas ellas en los primeros 10 cm de profundidad. Se encontró un descenso en la compactación del suelo, expresada como resistencia a la penetración, para los tratamientos de mecanización, y reportó el tratamiento palín mecánico (PM) con los valores más bajos. Este mismo tratamiento incrementó la infiltración acumulada (38,70±3,60 mm a los 150 min) de manera significativa, al comparar con la obtenida en el tratamiento testigo (0,09±0,02 mm a los 150 min). No se encontró diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos de mecanización para densidad aparente, porosidad y espacio aéreo, pero sí con respecto al tratamiento T. El tratamiento subsolador (S) propició los valores más elevados de conductividad hidráulica, sin diferencias estadísticas del resto de tratamientos (p>0,05). A field study was conducted to test the effects of soil tillage with 3 different implements on compaction, physical and hydropedological properties of an Ultisol under cattle production, located in San Mateo, Alajuela. An area of approximately 10 000 m2 was selected and divided into 16 plots (650 m2 each) and was tilled with 3 different implements corresponding to the treatments, following an unrestricted random experimental design, with a plot as experimental unit. Soil without tillage (T), tillage by spader plow (PM), tillage by chisel plow (C) or tillage by subsoiler (S) were established as treatments. Forty days after tillage treatments, soil penetration resistance every 5 cm up to 50 cm deep was assessed, and gravimetric moisture content, bulk and particle density, water infiltration and hydraulic conductivity, all of them up to the first 10 cm deep, all of them were measured. Soil compaction, expressed as soil penetration resistance, was reduced by tillage treatments; the lowest values for soil compaction were found in the spader plow treatment (PM). This same treatment enhanced cumulated infiltration (38.70±3.60 mm at 150 min) significantly, comparing with those obtained in T treatment (0.09±0.02 mm at 150 min). No significant differences were found among tillage treatments for bulk density, total porosity and airspace, but comparing with control treatment (T) they were found. Subsoiler treatment (S) favored the highest values for hydraulic conductivity, but no significant differences with the other treatments were found (p>0.05). UCR::Vicerrectoría de Investigación::Unidades de Investigación::Ciencias Agroalimentarias::Centro de Investigaciones Agronómicas (CIA)