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The purpose of the present study was to investigate oarside and nonoarside lower extremity asymmetries in isokinetic strength and joint mobility of port and starboard oarsmen. Peak torques of right and left extensors and flexors were measured on isokinetic dynamometer at angular velocities of 60 and 180°·s-1 in 12 starboard (n = 12; training age 5.55 ± 0.52 years) and 14 port (n = 14; training age 6.09 ± 0.95 years) well-trained male rowers. Mobility of the hip, knee, and ankle joints was measured using the Myrin flexometer, a modification of the Leighton flexometer. The findings indicate that ports had a significantly higher peak torque in oarside right knee extensors at 60°·s-1 (p < 0.001) and 180°·s-1 (p < 0.01) compared to in the nonoarside left knee extensors. In a respective manner, starboards had a higher peak torque in left knee extensors at 60°·s-1 (p < 0.05) and 180°·s-1 (p < 0.05) compared to the right side. Right flexors peak torque was significantly higher in ports compared to that in starboards at 60°·s-1 (p < 0.05) and 180°·s-1 (p < 0.01). No significant difference between port and starboards in left knee flexors at either angular velocity was found. Both port and starboards exhibited a significantly higher hip (p < 0.01) mobility in oarside compared to in nonoarside. We conclude that sweep rowers develop a significantly higher flexion knee peak torque and hip mobility depending on oarside. Strength and mobility abnormalities may provide information for training and rehabilitation. Strengthening and stretching training programs to compensate for potential strength and mobility imbalance and thereby reducing the occurrence of injuries may be designed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the maximal voluntary peak torques of the quadriceps and hamstring muscles and the torque ratio between these muscle groups in basketball players and soccer players participating in teams of different divisions. Peak torque values relative to body weight; H/Q ratio of basketball and soccer players.

This study is aimed to examine the muscle fiber type, composition and satellite cells in young male soccer players and to correlate them to cardiorespiratory indices and muscle strength. The participants formed three Groups: Group A (n = 13), 11.2 ± 0.4yrs, Group B (n=10), 13.1 ± 0.5yrs and Group C (n = 9), 15.2 ± 0.6yrs. Muscle biopsies were obtained from the vastus lateralis. Peak torque values of the quadriceps and hamstrings were recorded and VO2max was measured on the treadmill. Group C had lower type I percentage distribution compared to A by 21.3% (p < 0.01), while the type IIA relative percentage was higher by 18.1% and 18.4% than in Groups A and B (p < 0.05). Groups B and C had higher cross-sectional area (CSA) values in all fiber types than in Group A (0.05 < p < 0.001). The number of satellite cells did not differ between the groups. Groups B and C had higher peak torque at all angular velocities and absolute VO2max in terms of ml·min(-1) than Group A (0.05 < p < 0.001). It is concluded that the increased percentage of type IIA muscle fibers noticed in Group C in comparison to the Groups A and B should be mainly attributed to the different workload exercise and training programs. The alteration of myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms composition even in children is an important mechanism for skeletal muscle characteristics. Finally, CSA, isokinetic muscle strength and VO2max values seems to be expressed according to age. Key PointsFifteen years old soccer players have higher IIA percentage distribution than the younger players by approximately 18%.The age and the training status play a crucial role in muscle fibers co-expression.Specific training in young athletes seems to alter significantly the muscular metabolic profile.

Aim: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of partial passive stretching (PPS) on peak torque (PT) and joint range of motion (ROM) in healthy subjects., Methods: Twenty-two males (mean age 20.4±1.0 yrs, height 181.1±4.2 cm and weight 75.8±6.8 kg) participated in the study. Quadriceps and hamstrings PT at different angular velocities was obtained on an isokinetic dynamometer. Standing leg method hop was tested for the stretched and unstretched leg. Each subject performed PPS for 20 seconds. The stretching procedure was repeated 5 times for each muscle group. The whole stretching program lasted for 6 minutes and 20 seconds followed by 5 seconds resting period., Results: Directly after the stretching procedure significant increases were observed of PT in quadriceps and hamstrings, however, only at 300o.s⁻¹ (P<0.05). Joint ROM was increased in all subjects (P<0.05). The distance in single length hop was increased significantly in the stretched leg following stretching (P<0.05). No changes were observed in the unstretched leg., Conclusion: Our results indicated that the PPS altered ROM, maximal concentric isokinetic strength at high angle velocities and single length hop only for the stretched leg. These findings suggest that PPS may be an effective technique for enhancing muscle performance.

The objective of this study was to investigate the potential variations in cardiorespiratory and metabolic parameters and running performance among 3 modes of exercise of the same duration, namely, intermittent running with active recovery (AR) or passive recovery (PR) and continuous running (CR) and whether these variations could affect passive recovery time (PRT). Fifteen male physical education students with a subspecialty in soccer were studied (mean age 22.3 ± 2.5 years, training experience 12.3 ± 2.5 years) in the middle of the playing season. The results showed that during exercise, the highest heart rate (HR) and VO2 values were observed in CR, whereas the lowest values in PR followed by AR. Blood lactate (BLa) concentration was higher in PR by 38% compared to that in AR (p < 0.05). The exercise duration was similar between PR and AR tests and longer than in CR. With regard to PRT, the highest HR (186 ± 9 b · min(-1)), VO2 (55.5 ± 5.2 ml · kg(-1) · min(-1)), and BLa (5.1 ± 1.7 mmol · L(-1)) values were found in CR. No differences in HR and VO2 between PR and AR were detected. However, despite the differences in BLa concentration between AR and PR during exercise, the PRT BLa values between these 2 exercise modes were not different. Among the 3 running protocols, only CR appeared to have fully challenged the cardiorespiratory system inducing maximal HR and VO2 responses during exercise and high BLa values in PRT, yet these responses were not associated with better exercise performance compared to intermittent running. Therefore, intermittent exercise, regardless of implementing passive or active interval, might be the preferable exercise mode particularly in activities extended over 30 minutes.

Aim: To determine and compare the erythropoietic response and exercise performance of adolescent cross-country skiers, as a result of "living high-training high" (HH) and "living high-training low" (HL)., Methods: Nine female and six male adolescent cross-country skiers volunteered to participate in separate trials. In the first trial (HH), the skiers lived and trained for 21 days at 1550-2050 m, while in the second trial (HL) they trained near sea level (450-500 m) but resided at 1550 m. All participants underwent maximal cycle ergometer tests for the determination of VO2max and cardiorespiratory parameters via an open circuit system at sea level before ascent to altitude, and 1-2 days after descent from altitude. Blood samples were drawn prior to and immediately after maximal cycle exercise testing, at sea level prior to ascent, on days 1 (D1) and 21 (D21) at altitude (1740 m), and 1-2 days post-altitude, for the determination of serum erythropoietin (EPO) concentration, haemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit (Ht), and red blood cell (RBC) volume., Results: The results showed that both boys and girls cross-country skiers, significantly improved their sea level VO2max after 21 days of living at moderate altitude and training near sea level., Conclusion: The present study demonstrates that living at moderate altitude, 1550-2050 m and training low, near sea level (450-500 m) significantly increases VO2max and RBC mass for both boys and girls. Results indicate that applying the training concept "living high - training low" in adolescent athletes may improve their endurance performance.

The aim of this study was to examine and to compare alterations in the secretion of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) during different exercise-testing protocols in moderately trained men. Fifteen healthy male physical education students were studied (mean age 22·3 ± 2·5 years, training experience 12·3 ± 2·5 years, height 1·80 ± 0·06 m, weight 77·4 ± 8·2 kg). Participants performed an initial graded maximal exercise testing on a treadmill for the determination of VO(2max) (duration 7·45-9·3 min and VO(2max) 55·05 ± 3·13 ml kg(-1) min(-1) ) and were examined with active recovery (AR), passive recovery (PR) and continuous running (CR) in random order. Blood samples for plasma ANP concentration were taken at rest (baseline measurement), immediately after the end of exercise as well as after 30 min in passive recovery time (PRT). The plasma ANP concentration was determined by radioimmunoassay (RIA). The results showed that ANP plasma values increased significantly from the rest period to maximal values. In the short-term graded maximal exercise testing the ANP plasma values increased by 56·2% (44·8 ± 10·4 pg ml(-1) versus 102·3 ± 31·3 pg ml(-1) , P<0.001) and in the CR testing the ANP levels increased by 29·2% (44·8 ± 10·4 pg ml(-1) versus 63·3 ± 19·8 pg ml(-1) , P<0.001) compared to the baseline measurement. Moreover, the values of ANP decreased significantly (range 46·4-51·2%, P<0.001) in PRT after the end of the four different exercise modes. However, no significant difference was evident when ANP values at rest and after AR and PR were compared. It is concluded that the exercise testing protocol may affect the plasma ANP concentrations. Particularly, short-term maximal exercise significantly increases ANP values, while the intermittent exercise form of active and passive recovery decreases ANP concentrations., (© 2010 The Authors. Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging © 2010 Scandinavian Society of Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine.)

Aim: The aim of the present study was to examine the adaptation of myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms, capillary density and fiber cross sectional area (CSA) of deltoid muscle in adolescent and adult elite Greco-Roman wrestlers., Methods: Eighteen Greco-Roman wrestlers were divided into two groups: adolescents included 10 athletes (group A) between 14-18 years of age (15.4+/-1.3 yrs) and adults included 8 athletes (group B) between 20-27 years (23.5+/-2.6 yrs). Histochemical analyses were used to determine the muscle fiber type distribution and the muscle fiber cross sectional area. MHC isoform composition was determined with protein electrophoresis, while capillary density (capillary to fiber ratio and capillaries per mm2) analysis was performed with a-amylase Periodic and Schiff staining., Results: Adolescents demonstrated a significantly higher percentage of type I fibers (P<0.05) and type I fiber area (P<0.05) compared to the adults. The percentage of type IIa fiber area were significantly higher in adult wrestlers (P<0.05). MHC I isoforms was significantly higher in adolescents (P<0.05), whereas the MHC isoforms of IIa and IIx did not differ between groups. The capillary density (mm2) were significantly higher (P<0.05) in adolescents compared to adults., Conclusion: Our findings suggest that the observed muscle fiber profile in the deltoid muscle of wrestlers may represent an adaptation based on the mechanical and biochemical demands of the long-term training. Such adaptations are linked to the specific characteristics of the training program, the level and the previous training experience of the wrestlers.

The present study investigated the relationship between spinal flexibility and range of trunk flexion during curl-up performance. Fifty young adult men (age: 18.93 +/- 1.31 years; height: 179.4 +/- 5.7 cm; mass: 73.95 +/- 7.8 kg) performed a spinal flexibility measurement test and a maximum voluntary trunk curl-up from the supine position. The 2 tests were paced to the beat of a metronome and had a constant movement duration set to 5 seconds. Spinal and pelvic motions were recorded with the help of 2 electromagnetic tracking sensors (Flock of Birds, Ascension Technologies, Inc., Burlington, Vt; sampling rate 100 Hz) attached to the seventh cervical (C7) and first sacral (S1) vertebrae, respectively. Correlation and linear regression analyses revealed a significant relationship between spinal flexibility and curl-up performance, with spinal flexibility accounting for 18% of the variance in the range of trunk flexion during performance of the voluntary trunk curl-up. No significant anterior tilt of the pelvis was noted during performance of the trunk curl-up. On the other hand, a minor posterior pelvic rotation depicted during the initial phase of the trunk curl-up was negatively correlated with spinal flexibility. It is concluded that a normal range of spinal flexibility is critical for the optimal performance of abdominal strength training exercises such as trunk curl-ups from the supine position. The results of the present study are relevant to the design and evaluation of training programs for improving strength and function of the abdominal muscles in rehabilitation and sports contexts.

Aim: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of specific inspiratory muscle training (IMT) on inspiratory muscle strength, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), maximal lactate accumulation (Lmax), dyspnea sensation and rowing performance in rowers., Methods: Ninteen well-trained rowers were divided into two groups: IMT (T) and control (C). The T group, in addition to their daily rowing practice, performed IMT by means of a threshold inspiratory muscle trainer for approximately 0.5h.d(-1), 5 times a week for 6 weeks. The C group participated only in their regular daily rowing training. Prior to the initiation and at the completion of the 6-week IMT program, both groups underwent an incremental treadmill run test to determine VO2max. Maximum inspiratory mouth pressure (PImax) was measured at rest and following the VO2max test. On a separate occasion, rowing performance was evaluated by a 2000 m all-out effort on a rowing ergometer. Dyspnea sensation was assessed by a modified Borg scale and Lmax was measured by an enzymatic method., Results: Six weeks of IMT significantly (P < 0.05) increased resting PImax. Moreover, inspiratory muscle training increased PImax following the VO2max test in the T group. In contrast, no changes in PImax were observed in the C group during the 6-week period. No significant differences were observed between pre- and post-test values in VO2max, dyspnea sensation, Lmax, and 2000 m race time in both groups., Conclusion: In conclusion, six weeks of IMT increases inspiratory muscle strength by approximately 28% in highly trained rowers. However, this increase in inspiratory muscle strength does not appear to improve VO2max, dyspnea sensation during exercise, or rowing performance in well-trained rowers.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the long-term effects of high intensity resistance training on myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform composition of single fibres. Muscle biopsies were obtained from the right vastus lateralis of eight bodybuilders (BB) and seven physical education students (PES). Histochemical analyses were used to determine the fibre type distribution and the fibre cross-sectional area. MHC isoform composition of single fibres was determined with protein electrophoresis. The percentage of fibres expressing MHC IIA and MHC I/IIA was larger in BB (P < 0.05), while MHC IIX was completely absent (P < 0.05). In contrast, myofibrilar ATPase histochemistry only revealed a significantly lower percentage of type IIX fibres in BB (P < 0.05). The muscle fibre profile in the vastus lateralis muscle of BB may represent an adaptation based on the mechanical and biochemical demands of the long-term resistance training.

The aim of this study was to examine the deltoid muscle properties of the dominant and non-dominant arm of Greek professional male tennis players. Eight male tennis players (mean age 22.0 years, s = 3.2) were subjected to biopsy of the deltoid muscle of both arms. Adenosine triphosphate (ATPase) histochemistry and myosin heavy chain (MHC) composition were performed on the samples with homogenate electrophoresis. No significant differences were observed in the percentage of types I, IIa, IIab, and IIb muscle fibres between the deltoid muscles of the two arms. Types I, IIa, and IIx muscle fibres of the dominant and non-dominant deltoid muscles did not differ significantly for MHC isoform composition. Type IIab muscle fibres showed a similar cross-sectional area (CSA) percentage distribution between the two arms. The CSA percentage for types I, IIa, and IIb muscle fibers did not differ significantly between the dominant and the non-dominant arm. We conclude therefore that regular tennis training probably does not lead to any significant changes in the muscle fibre types of the dominant and non-dominant arms of elite tennis players.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of prolonged basketball skills training on maximal aerobic power, isokinetic strength, joint mobility, and body fat percentage, in young basketball players, and controls of the same age. Twenty basketball players and 18 control boys participated in the study. Basketball players participated both in their school's physical education program and in a children's basketball team training program. Controls participated only in their school's physical education program. All subjects were tested every 6 months (18 months total, 11(1/2), 12, 12(1/2), 13 years old) for VO(2)max, peak torque values of the quadriceps and hamstrings at 180 and 300 degrees x s(-1) and range of motion of the knee and hip joints. Body fat percentage was assessed at the beginning and the end of the experimental period. Results showed that the basketball group had lower heart rate values in all ages and higher VO(2) values in the initial test compared with the control in submaximal intensity. The VO(2)max was altered in both groups on the final test, when compared to the initial test. However, the basketball group had a higher VO(2)max on each of the 6-month follow-up measurements, compared to the control group (p < 0.001). At the end of the 18-month follow-up period no significant differences were observed in isokinetic strength and joint mobility of the lower limbs between the 2 groups. On the contrary, the boys of the trained group had significantly lower percentage body fat values, compared to controls. In conclusion, regular basketball training increased aerobic power and decreased body fat percentage of prepubescent boys, while it did not affect muscle strength and joint mobility of the lower limbs. The major implication suggested by the findings of the present study is that, in order to improve the basic physical components, specific training procedures should be incorporated during the basketball training sessions. It is recommended that all children should be involved in some type of cardiovascular and resistance training program.

Aim: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the seasonal variation in the cardiorespiratory fitness of soccer players according to positional role in the team., Methods: Thirty-two male soccer players U-19 years old were studied, consisting of 10 central defenders (18.2+/-0.9 years and 8.5+/-1.6 years of training (Group A), 12 midfielders (18+/-1 years and 8.1+/-1.4 years of training (Group B) and 10 attackers (18.2+/-0.9 years and 8.4+/-1.5 years of training (Group C). All subjects underwent anthropometric measurements and maximal exercise tests on a treadmill four times during their annual training cycle and maximal blood lactate accumulation analysis in order to verify that maximal exertion was reached. The measurements took place in the beginning and at the end of the preparation period, in the middle as well as at the end of the competitive season., Results: Group A showed increased VO2(max) (mL.kg(-1.)min(-1)) by 19.3% in the 2nd measurement, by 22.9% in the 3rd and by 17.6% in the 4th compared to the beginning, respectively (P

The purpose of this study was to compare students' dimensions to the dimension of school furniture, in primary school, and determine whether this type of furniture is well-designed and promotes good sitting posture at school by taking into account the dimensions of the children. A total of 180 (90 male and 90 female) students, from three primary schools in Thessaloniki, Greece, participated in the study. Their ages ranged from 7 to 12 years. The following human body dimensions were measured: stature, elbow height, shoulder height, upper arm length, knee height, popliteal height and buttock-popliteal length. In addition, the dimensions were measured for four different types of chairs and five types of desks prevalent in classrooms. Finally, the anthropometric measures of the students and the furniture dimensions were compared in order to identify any incompatibility between them. The data indicate a mismatch between the students' bodily dimensions and the classroom furniture available to them. The chairs are too high and too deep and desks are also too high for the pupils. This situation has negative effects on the sitting posture of the children especially when reading and writing.

It seems likely that the neuropeptide Y (NPY)-leptin axis is involved in the regulation of energy expenditure in man. The purpose of this study was to observe the effect of a model of intense prolonged exercise-mediated energy expenditure (25 km swim race in 6.9-10.5 hours) on leptin and NPY concentrations in male long-distance swimmers. Sixteen long-distance swimmers (mean age 25, range 18-45 years) who took part in a 25 km sea swimming competition (Toroneos golf, Chalkidiki, Greece) participated in the study. Mean competition time was 8.5 hours (range 6.5-10.5). The participants were allowed food and beverage intake ad libitum before and throughout the 25 km race. Venous blood samples were taken prior and immediately after the race for the measurement of serum leptin and plasma NPY. Non-esterified free fatty acids (NEFFA) and glycerol levels were determined as indicators of adipose tissue lipids mobilization. Results showed that leptin levels after marathon swimming were significantly reduced (p<0.001) in all athletes. There was a statistically significant negative correlation (r=-0.812, p<0.01) between the values of leptin and glycerol just after the termination of swimming. Blood serum glycerol and free fatty acid levels were significantly increased (p<0.001) in all swimmers. Plasma NPY levels were also increased (p<0.01) in 81.2% of the swimmers. Linear regression analysis revealed a significant negative correlation between the values of leptin and NPY (r=-0.789, p<0.01). In conclusion, these data support our initial hypothesis that appropriate changes in leptin and NPY take place during marathon swimming to compensate for the negative energy balance produced due to this prolonged effort. This indicates the NPY-leptin axis involvement in the regulation of energy expenditure in man.

Background: This study examined the influence of knee angle on the cardiorespiratory system loading during submaximal and maximal stationary cycle ergometry., Methods: Experimental design and participants: eighteen untrained women (age: 21+/-1.88 years, weight: 57+/-5.75 kg, height: 165+/-5.03 cm, values are mean+/-SD) volunteered as subjects and underwent two-cycle ergometer incremental (Jaeger ER900) tests: 1) straight knee (180 degrees), 2) bent knee (140 degrees)., Measures: oxygen uptake (VO2), ventilation (VE) and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) were measured continuously during each test using an open circuit spirometry and blood lactate concentration was determined by means of an enzymatic method., Results: Comparing cycling with "straight knee" to cycling with "bent knee" at 50 W, heart rate (HR), V(E) and VO2 were significantly higher (10.6%, 12.5%, 17.8%). At 100 W, blood lactate was significantly lower (10.8%) while VO2 and RER was higher (5.5%, 7.1%). During maximal exercise, the total exercise time was significantly longer (11.2%) and VE, VO2 and HR were significantly higher during cycling with "straight knee" compared to cycling with "bent knee". No significant difference in peak lactate was evident between the two sitting positions., Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that cycling with bent knee requires lower oxygen uptake while pedaling with straight knee is the only way to reach VO2max during cycle testing, since the cardiorespiratory system is fully taxed.

The purpose of this study was to assess differences in variability of three joints' range of motion in the lower extremity among individuals with Down syndrome, mentally retarded individuals without Down syndrome, and sedentary subjects without mental retardation (ns = 13, 25, and 30, respectively). Range of motion for hip and knee flexion was obtained using a Myrin goniometer. For hip abduction the range of motion was obtained using a double protractor goniometer (Brodin type). Three test repetitions were carried out, and the greatest value was recorded. As no significant differences were found between left and right sides for each motion, the average was used to represent the range of motion. The Down syndrome group had significantly higher mean range of motion in hip flexion than the mentally retarded group. No significant differences in mean range of motion were found between Down syndrome and sedentary groups, but a significant difference was observed between the control and mentally retarded groups. In hip abduction, the Down syndrome group showed significantly higher mean range of motion than the control and mentally retarded groups. The control group had significantly a higher mean range of motion than the mentally retarded group. No significant differences were found in knee flexion between the two mentally disabled groups, but significant differences in mean range of motion were found between each of the two groups of mentally retarded individuals and the control group. Because differences exist in mean range of motion between the two mentally disabled groups, individualized and differentiated training programs to improve flexibility must be designed based on the type of handicap.

The purpose of this study was to assess differences in isokinetic muscle torque in the knee among mentally retarded individuals with Down syndrome, mentally retarded individuals without Down syndrome, and sedentary subjects without mental retardation (ns of 7, 8, and 12, respectively). Subjects performed strength tests to knee extension and flexion on a Cybex II isokinetic dynamometer. The measure was peak torque at angular velocities of 60, 120, and 300 degrees/sec. For the Mentally Retarded subjects with and without Down syndrome, the test was performed on two separate days 24 hr. apart. For Sedentary subjects, testing was performed on one day. Their scores indicated significantly higher values of torque than the two other groups. Also, subjects with Down syndrome had inferior muscle torque of lower extremities than peers in the Mentally Retarded Group.

The aim of this study was to examine the effect on heart rate, blood pressure and RPE on a bicycle ergometer performed with three different ways, i.e. with the anterior part of the foot, the posterior part of the foot and at saddle height with a knee angle of 120 degrees-125 degrees of submaximal and maximal work load. Untrained female (age X = 22 +/- 2.10 years, weight X = 56 +/- 5.4 kg, height X = 162 +/- 5.25 cm) volunteered as subjects. Heart rate and RPE at work load of 100 Watts were significantly lower in cycling with anterior part of the foot than with posterior part of the foot, while RPE in cycling with the posterior part of the foot was significantly lower in comparison to cycling with a knee angle of 120 degrees-125 degrees. Thirty three subjects were able to complete cycling on the load of 125 W with the anterior part of the foot; 28 with the posterior part of the foot and 22 with a knee angle of 120 degrees-125 degrees. It was concluded that cycling, (a) with the anterior part of the foot and the knee almost fully extended, is perceived easier and is more effective; (b) with the posterior part of the foot is tiring and ineffective and (c) with a low height of the saddle affects muscular work negatively.

Peripheral adaptations to 3 months of physical endurance training without food restrictions were studied in skeletal muscles of 14, middle-aged, physically untrained, obese women. In comparison to aged-matched controls of normal weight, the obese group showed significantly lower isometric endurance. In the obese group, physical training resulted in a significant increase of maximal isometric and isokinetic strength. Isokinetic but not isometric endurance also increased after training. The isometric strength of obese women showed a positive correlation with the percentage of FTb fibres. The training (50 min/day, 3 days/w) did not result in any change in body weight, body fat, and the number and weight of fat cells. The 20% increase of VO2 max after training was found to be significantly correlated with the increase in the number of capillaries around muscle fibres. The relative percentage of FTa fibres, the number of capillaries per fibre as well as the activities of citrate synthase, 3-hydroxy-acyl-CoA-dehydrogenase, and hexokinase showed a significant increase after training. The concentrations of glucose during OGTT showed a trend to decrease with a significant decrease at the end glucose curve (120-min value). The concentration of insulin and C peptide and the insulin removal did not change after training. The changes in the concentration of glucose during OGTT was significantly correlated with the increase in muscle capillarization and of dynamic endurance.

Twenty-seven women with varying degrees of obesity were physically trained for 6 mo on an ad lib. diet. Body fat changes were positively correlated with the number of fat cells in adipose tissue. Obese women with fewer fat cells decreased in weight during training whereas women with severe obesity and an increased number of fat cells even gained weight. Blood pressure decreased consistently after training. Blood pressure elevation was not associated with body fat mass, nor was a decrease in blood pressure associated with a decrease in body fat or with pretraining blood pressure level. There were, instead, correlations between decreases in blood pressure on the one hand and initial concentrations and decreases in plasma insulin and triglycerides and blood glucose on the other. These results suggest an association between elevated blood pressure and metabolic variables. The possibility of treating and preventing early essential hypertension with methods that also correct the metabolic derangement, such as diet and exercise, should be given high priority in further research.