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Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier), known as red palm weevil (RPW) was accidentally introduced and established in Sicily (Italy) since 2005. As like in other Mediterranean sites, RPW has been causing extensive damage to palm trees and on its new host Phoenix canariensis Chabaud (Canary Island palms), acquired concomitantly with the colonization of the area. RPW shows a good ecological plasticity and slightly but significant morphological polymorphism (colour patterns and length of the rostrum in male individuals) that can be appreciated within different geographical populations. The aim of the present work was to investigate if this ecological plasticity and phenotypic variability can be accompanied by features in chromosomes like changes in diploid number or chromosome morphology, when compared to other RPW populations. Literature data on karyotype analysis reveals a diploid number (2n = 22). In this paper, the karyotypes of different morphotypes of RPW Sicilian populations, collected from P. canariensis, were analysed using conventional staining, C-banding and sequential staining with the fluorochromes chromomycin-A3/4-6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (CMA3/DAPI). The analyses of metaphases obtained from the testes of adults showed that the species has 2n = 22 chromosomes, with 10 autosomal pairs and a sex chromosome pair. The eu-heterochromatic composition investigated with CTG banding, DAPI, CMA3, and NOR do not indicate any peculiarity in the populations investigated. R. ferrugineus has a Coleoptera Curculionoidea chromosomal asset and functional compartimentalization. RPW presents a karyotype with intermediate characteristics between Dryophthorinae and Curculioninae such as micro Y chromosome and the typical “sphere-shape” of the sexual bivalent in prophase-I or after C-banding.

The Panel on Plant Protection Products and their Residues (PPR) has been tasked by EFSA to revise the SANCO guidance Document on Terrestrial Ecotoxicology which is currently used for conducting the risk assessment for terrestrial non-target organisms, except for birds and mammals and non-target arthropods. For each group of organisms, the PPR Panel first summarises the science behind the respective risk assessment in a scientific opinion and, in a second step, EFSA will develop practical guidance on how to perform the risk assessment. The main scope of the revision is to take into consideration: (i) the entry into force of the Regulation 1107/2009 replacing the Directive 91/414/EEC; (ii) the need for developing specific protection goals and (iii) the inclusion of new scientific elements in the environmental risk assessment of in-soil organisms. The Opinion only covers chemical plant protection products (PPPs), while microbial PPPs are not specifically addressed in the opinion. The working group of the PPR Panel reviewed the current environmental risk assessment, identified key drivers that sustain important soil ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes and developed proposals for specific protection goal (SPG) options for in-field and off-field areas, according to the procedure developed in the opinion of the PPR Panel of 2010 Based on the overarching ecosystem services concept, which was boosted in the so-called Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, those ecosystem services that could potentially be directly or indirectly (e.g. via trophic interactions) affected by the normal agricultural use of plant protection products were first identified, followed by the groups of in-soil organisms that are key drivers or service providing units (SPUs) for those ecosystem services. Specific protection goal (SPG) options have to be proposed for each combination of a key driver and ecosystem service. During the development of the opinion, several research needs covering different aspects in the context of pesticides risk assessment for in-soil organisms have been identified. Some of those needs, such as standardisation of toxicity tests with additional species than the standard ones, should be prioritised before the development of the guidance document. A public consultation on the draft opinion was launched in May, 2016 aiming at involving all the interested stakeholders.

Sicily (Italy) is one of the richest European regions in animal biodiversity. Butterflies offer good opportunities for studies on biodiversity , population and community ecology. Many species are strictly seasonal, preferring only a particular set of habitats. Five typical Mediterranean habitats: olive grove (conducted following organic farm management), mixed wood, ampelodesmos prairie (with dominance of Ampelodesmos mauritanicus), Mediterranean shrub and shrub at the coastal areas, were monitored for diversity and seasonal patterns in butterfly communities for 2 years. All habitats were inside protected areas indicated as Sites of Community Importance. Butterfly species richness was highest in ampelodesmos prairie and in olive grove. Pieris brassicae, Lasiommata megera, Maniola jurtina, Pararge aegeria have been reported in all habitats, although with different abundance whilst other species were observed only in one particular habitat. Melanargia pherusa, endemic species, and Hipparchia statil-inus, listed in the IUCN Red List, respectively as " Least Concern " and " Near Threatened " , were observed in the ampelodesmos prairie. The morphotype Coenonympha pamphilus f. lyllus was reported in olive grove and ampelodesmos prairie. The majority of species showed abundance peaks in June and July, however many species showed a longer flight period than reported in literature with detection of specimens until November or December. The analysis of the similarity of communities among habitats shows a similarity between ampelodesmos prairie and olive grove and between Mediterranean shrub and Mediterranean shrub at the coastal areas, while the butterfly community in mixed wood is substantially different. The results of several diversity indexes suggest that ampelodesmos prairie has an important ecological role, as it supports butterfly abundance and species diversity.

Il culto di Demetra e Kore era uno tra i più diffusi del mondo antico di cultura greca. Tuttavia, a causa della sua forte componente misterica, le modalità secondo le quali si articolavano alcuni riti ad esso connessi rimangono poco chiare e le fonti storiche ci forniscono poche e incerte informazioni in merito. Uno dei riti chiave avveniva durante le Tesmoforie, le principali feste in onore di Demetra e Kore, e consisteva nel rito del Megarizein. Il rituale prevedeva che dei maialini venissero gettati all’interno di cavità ipogee (megara) e che successivamente venissero recuperate le loro carcasse decomposte da offrire alle divinità. Qui presentiamo i risultati preliminari di un esperimento di bio tafonomia condotto attraverso l'utilizzo di specifici sistemi biologici (carcasse di maialini) posizionati all'interno di un ambiente carsico analogo a quello che si ipotizza venisse utilizzato durante il megarizein. In particolare, il nostro studio mira a riprodurre e ad analizzare gli effetti dell'attacco sia microbico (MFD) sia entomologico sulla carcassa. Porzioni di osso sono state prelevate con l'intenzione di comparare l'eventuale presenza di tracce riferibili ad un attacco microbico, con quelle rilevabili su un campione osteologico proveniente da contesti archeologici. I nostri dati preliminari forniscono nuove informazioni riguardo uno degli argomenti più dibattuti riferiti all'ambito dell'archeologia dei culti demetriaci e che riguarda la durata del periodo di tempo che intercorreva tra il posizionamento dei maialini all'interno della cavità e il recupero delle loro carcasse. Il nostro studio sperimentale evidenzia un rapido processo di decomposizione delle carcasse posizionate all'interno degli ambienti carsici dell'area mediterranea e, pertanto, permetterebbe di ipotizzare che la completa articolazione del rito ricadesse all'interno della durata delle tesmoforie.

Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) known as the Red Palm Weevil (RPW) is becoming more and more of a problem in Italy, and especially in Sicily, where it is well adapted. The infestations are mainly in the urban areas, and for that reason, chemical control is not advisable. Data from literature show that entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) particularly Steirnenema carpocapsae, have a quite successfully control of RPW. However, results coming from the laboratories are often in contrast with each other and no data are available on precise doses and S. carpocapsae seems not be able to reproduce itself in the host. The effect of EPN on the RPW immune system is totally unknown. Different dosages of S. carpocapsae and varying durations of exposure were assessed. Larval mortality showed a positive linear correlation with both nematode dosage and the duration of exposure. Median Lethal Dose (DL50) and the Median Lethal Time (TL50) were calculated for older larvae. The number of nematodes that gained access to the haemocoel of larvae was always low, but increased with dosage and exposure time. EPN had also a detrimental effect on larval weight. In this paper we also investigate in vivo and in vitro effects of administered S. carpocapsae on the phagocytic responses of R. ferrugineus later-instar larval haemocytes. After a few hours, the nematodes were measured in the hemolymph of the insect and it appeared that the immune system was not activated by the presence of these foreign bodies. The nematodes suddenly moulted in the hemolymph totally undisturbed by the hemocytes but they were unable to complete the life cycle and to reproduce. After 24 hours, the number of the hemocytes (THC) recorded in the larvae treated with S. carpocapsae was dramatically inferior compared to the THC found in the control larvae. The study of the interaction between EPN and RPW could be crucial understanding the mode of action of EPN in the different instars and the reason for the response to different doses. We also evaluated the defence ability of RPW humoral and cellular immunity system in vitro against the bacterium Xenorhabdus nematophila associated with EPN, through the Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MICs) assay. To our knowledge, this is the first time that such assay has been used to evaluate the ability of insect immune system against entomopathogenic bacterium.

Aim of this study was to investigate relationships between the red palm weevil (RPW) Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier) and the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae (EPN); particularly, the work was focused on the immune response of the insect host in naive larvae and after infection with the EPN. Two main immunological processes have been addressed: the activity and modulation of host prophenoloxidase-phenoloxidase (proPO) system, involved in melanization of not-self and hemocytes recognition processes responsible for not-self encapsulation. Moreover, immune depressive and immune evasive strategies of the parasite have been investigated. Our results suggest that RPW possess an efficient immune system, however in the early phase of infection, S. carpocapsae induces a strong inhibition of the host proPO system. In addition, host cell-mediated mechanisms of encapsulation, are completely avoided by the parasite, the elusive strategies of S. carpocapsae seem to be related to the structure of its body-surface, since induced alterations of the parasite cuticle resulted in the loss of its mimetic properties. S. carpocapsae before the release of its symbiotic bacteria, depress and elude RPW immune defenses, with the aim to arrange a favorable environment for its bacteria responsible of the septicemic death of the insect target.

Baseline susceptibility of European corn borer larvae, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), to a commercial formulation of Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki was determined for different strains in 7 geographic locations in the corn area of North Italy (Po Valley). For the bioassay 7 different doses, raised on a meredic diet, were used and the data was analysed with the Probit analysis. Differences in the susceptibility among the northern Italian populations of O. nubilalis were recorded, which can be attributed to natural variability. The ECB collected near Como and Torino was the most susceptible, respectively with LC50 of 0.23 and 0.57 mg/ml. The most tolerant ones were the larvae coming from the area of Vicenza (LC50 = 3.40 mg/ml). Baseline susceptibility was also determined for one population originally from Iowa but reared for more than 20 years in the laboratory and which had never experimented Bt. The LC50 calculated for this last one was compared to the Italian situation.

The aim of the present research is to evaluate the impact of agricultural products in the marine environments. Indeed in a country such as Italy and in particularly Sicily where agricultural areas nearshore marine waters, predicting where, when and with what magnitude the impact of xenobiotics derived from agriculture is imperative. In this contest we use as model a biological product (Bacillus thuringiensis) in understanding its potential effects on non target species and on marine biodiversity. Bivalves are important elements of marine biodiversity and very often they play a role of ecosystem engineers in that many other species structurally depend on their presence. Moreover as they consume bacteria, to investigate the effect of the enthomopathogenic bacteria B. thuringiensis on this non target organisms could be useful to implement environmental risk assessment and data on food biosafety. Oxygen consumption through respiration in these organisms varies with natural physical and chemical factors like temperature and food availability. However, it has been demonstrated that also several contaminants may affect respiration rates in intertidal bivalves like the small Mediterranean Mytilid, Mytilaster minimus. Since the respiration is an important component of energy budget, deviation of its magnitude from common natural patterns may alter the amount of energy available for growth and reproduction. Such a fact, by cascade, may induce alteration of biodiversity. Here we focus on effects of two different concentrations of commercial products containing B. thuringiensis (50 and 100 J.II r1) compared with non treated control (i.e., noBt; CTRL) on energy budget of M. minimus. Experiments have been carried out with adult mussels of about 1.4 ± 0.3 cm collected in March 2010 from the coasts around Palermo (Northern Sicily). We measured standardised respiration rates (J.Imoli h-1 g-1) at ambient temperature (20.0 ± 1.00 C) in mesocosmal tanks both in presence of Bt and without. No difference was detected in size of experimental animals. Ingestion rates were significant different among three treatments; respired energy; peaked significantly at 100 J.II r1, and CTRL was different respect to both treatments while assimilated energy was higher in CTRL (87%) than 50 J.II r1 (57%) and 100 J.II r1 (70%). The total amount energy actually absorbed was maximum in CTRL and significantly decreased at 100 and 50 J.II r1. These novel risk assessment strategies may help to more comprehensively

This chapter discusses the following procedures for risk assessment in Bt cotton using the non-target risk assessment model developed by scientists of the GMO ERA Project ("International Project on GMO Environmental Risk Assessment Methodologies", which is a continuation of the GMO Guidelines Project, which was launched by scientists of the International Organization for Biological Control Global Working Group on "Transgenic Organisms in Integrated Pest Management and Biological Control"): (1) identify relevant functional groups of biological diversity associated with adverse effects, (2) list and prioritize species or ecological processes, (3) identify potential exposure pathways and adverse effects pathways, and use these to formulate and prioritize risk hypotheses, and (4) develop an analysis plan and suggest designs for experiments to test risk hypotheses

Gli studi sugli effetti dell'agricoltura sulla biodiversità del suolo sono diventati molto importanti, al fine di proteggere la salute dell'ambiente e migliorare la qualità dell'agricoltura. Le comunità di nematodi hanno dimostrato di offrire un potente strumento ecologico per valutare gli effetti delle pratiche agricole sul suolo. La ricerca è stata condotta in una monocoltura di mais (della durata di 20 anni) e in un ecosistema erbaceo seminaturale, dominato da Festuca spp. e Trifolium spp.. Ciascun sistema è stato sottoposto a due diverse pratiche di gestione delle colture (input alto (H) e basso (L)). L'obiettivo era quindi quello di studiare gli effetti di due diversi ecosistemi e diverse pratiche agricole sul suolo, utilizzando i nematodi come bioindicatori. Il confronto è stato effettuato sulla composizione generale, la struttura trofica e la biodiversità della nematofauna raccolta in tutti i sistemi. Una maggiore abbondanza di nematodi è stata registrata nella monocoltura di mais ad alto input (336 individui/100 g di suolo) mentre quella più bassa è stata trovata nel basso input dei prati (33 individui/100 g di suolo). Complessivamente, 20 famiglie e 32 generi abitavano tutti i sistemi, e il numero dei generi e la composizione erano piuttosto differenti. In tutti i sistemi i batteriofagi erano il gruppo trofico più abbondante, variando tra il 97% nell'alto input della monocoltura e il 76% nel basso input dei prati. I fungivori e i fitofagi erano più abbondanti nei prati che nelle monocolture. Gli onnivori sono stati trovati in entrambi gli input di mais in una percentuale molto bassa (

The new guidelines of the European Commission intend to reduce the use of pesticides by 50%. A valid sustainable alternative to chemicals products in agriculture seems to be essential oils (EOs). The role of OEs is to cope external stressors for protecting plants themselves from pests and/or insects, bacteria, fungi and nematodes. The purpose of the work is to investigate which EOs have been evaluated in agriculture in the last 100 years, specially focusing on main target activities (antibacterial, insecticidal, fungicidal, acaricidal, antiviral, nematocidal). The examination has been done with VOSviewer software, which through the cluster analysis of scientific literature available on Scopus allows the visualization of network maps for keywords, countries, authors and journals.It was found that the highest number of EOs are associated with antibacterial and insecticidal activities, while few studies have been conduced for nematicidal activity. The majority of works on the topic have been done in Brazil, Italy and India taking into account target species as Meloidogyne and Bursaphelenchus, even if a specific EO has not been found yet to be efficace on nematodes. EOs are considered effective control methods in vitro, but more evidence are necessary in vivo. Accordingly, notwithstanding the promising results so far obtained, competing with synthetic products implicate investing more efforts in the assessment of the real protective action of EOs in crops as well as their cost-effectiveness.

In agriculture, more attention has been paid to limit the amount of chemical plant protection products. A potential alternative solution has been found in essential oils (EOs), which appear as promising candidates for their properties (safe, bioactive, biodegradable products) in managing plant diseases in agriculture. Therefore, a co-occurrence analysis was carried out on the available literature on Scopus database, through network maps created by VOSviewer software in order to identify the EOs used in agriculture, agricultural products and their target application. USA and India appeared as the most productive countries in terms of documents and citations followed by Iran and Italy. The co-occurrence analysis revealed eight, more frequently used, EOs in agriculture, in particular, they found more applications as antibacterial and insecticidal agents. On the contrary, any specific EO for nematicidal and acaricidal activity emerged from the analysis. The EOs with the largest applicability were Thymus (mainly T. vulgaris), Citrus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Origanum, Lavandula, Mentha, Ocimum (mainly O. basilicum). Thanks to EOs main features, is possible to invest more in the research, as demonstrated by the increasing trend of documents published in the last decades and the list of high-quality journals interested in this topic. An easier interpretation of the great amount of data enables to identify what has been investigated till nowadays to shape the potential future progression and prospective in this research field.

The cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serricorne F. (Coleoptera: Anobiidae) is an important food storage pest affecting the tobacco industry and is increasingly impacting museums and herbaria. Monitoring methods make use of pheromone traps which can be implemented using chili fruit powder. The objective of this study was to assess the response of L. serricorne to the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from different chili powders in order to identify the main semiochemicals involved in this attraction. Volatiles emitted by Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens, and C. chinense dried fruit powders were tested in an olfactometer and collected and analyzed using SPME and GC-MS. Results indicated that C. annuum and C. frutescens VOCs elicit attraction toward L. serricorne adults in olfactometer, while C. chinense VOCs elicit no attraction. Chemicals analysis showed a higher presence of polar compounds in the VOCs of C. annuum and C. frutescens compared to C. chinense, with &alpha, ionone and &beta, ionone being more abundant in the attractive species. Further olfactometer bioassays indicated that both &alpha, ionone elicit attraction, suggesting that these compounds are candidates as synergistic attractants in pheromone monitoring traps for L. serricorne.

The herbaria are scientific tools of great importance that preserve extinct, rare, endemic, and common plant species and also have importance as Cultural Heritage for their historical and esthetical value. Herbaria can be infested by several insect pests feeding on dried plants, and their management is often complicated and difficult as the use of chemical insecticides can have negative drawbacks. This suggests a strong need for alternative control tools such as the use of semiochemicals to develop Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs. In order to identify the main insect pests that determine the damages on the exsiccata stored in the Palermo Botanical Garden's Herbarium, one of the largest in the world, a survey of the botanical samples and their infestations was carried out. The survey pointed out that Lasioderma serricorne was the key pest of the herbarium. Consequently, experiments were conducted to evaluate and optimize the use of semiochemicals for monitoring and mass trapping L. serricorne. Two sex pheromone dispensers (polyethylene tubes and patch dispensers, made by tissue-not tissue glued with pheromone) were evaluated for their efficacy in terms of emission and insect attraction. A food attractant, Capsicum annuum dried fruit powder, was also evaluated as synergist of the pheromone. Results indicated that polyethylene tubes determined a pheromone emission more constant with time and attracted a higher number of insects in traps in comparison with patch dispensers. Moreover, the use of C. annuum fruit powder in the pheromone traps determined a significant increase of catches compared with the traps loaded with pheromone alone, suggesting the possibility that accumulation or synergist effects occur.

The ability of several N-phenyl-1H-pyrazole-4-carboxamide derivatives and other pyrazoles opportunely modified at the positions 3, 4 and 5, to reduce the formation of the biofilm in some Staphylococcus aureus strains (ATCC 29213, ATCC 25923 and ATCC 6538) were investigated. All the tested compounds were able, although to a different extent, to reduce the biofilm formation of the three bacterial strains considered. Among these, the 1-(2,5-dichlorophenyl)-5-methyl-N-phenyl-1H-pyrazole-4-carboxamide 14 resulted as the best inhibitor of biofilm formation showing an IC50 ranging from 2.3 to 32 μM, against all the three strains of S. aureus. Compound 14 also shows a good protective effect in vivo by improving the survival of wax moth larva (Galleria mellonella) infected with S. aureus ATCC 29213. These findings indicate that 14d is a potential lead compound for the development of new anti-virulence agents against S. aureus infections.

In the struggle against the emergence of the antibiotic resistance, new molecules targeting biofilm formation could be useful as adjuvant of conventional antibiotics. This study focused on a new class of 2-phenylhydrazinylidene derivatives as antivirulence agents. The compound 12e showed interesting activities against biofilm formation of all tested Staphylococcus aureus strains with IC50 ranging from 1.7 to 43 µM; compounds 12f and 13a resulted strong inhibitors of S. aureus ATCC 6538 and ATCC 29213 biofilm formation with IC50 of 0.9 and 0.8 µM, respectively. A preliminary study on the mechanism of action was carried on evaluating the inhibition of sortase A transpeptidase. Compound 12e resulted not to be toxic at 1 mg/ml by using an in vivo model (the wax moth larva model, Galleria mellonella).

We respond to the paper of Kruse-Plass et al. (Environ Sci Eur 29:12, 2017), published in this journal, regarding the risk to non-target lepidopteran larvae exposed to pollen from one or more of three Bt maize events (MON810, Bt11 and 1507). We emphasise that what is important for environmental risk assessment is not the number of pollen grains per se, but the degree of exposure of a NT lepidopteran larva to Bt protein contained in maize pollen. The main text of this response deals with general issues which Kruse-Plass et al. have failed to understand; more detailed refutations of each of their claims are given in Additional file 1. Valid environmental risk assessment requires direct measurement of pollen on leaves at varying distances outside a source field(s); such measurements reflect the potential exposure experienced by an individual larva on a host plant. There are no new data in the Kruse-Plass et al. paper, or indeed any data directly quantifying pollen on actual host-plant leaves outside a maize field; only data gathered within or at the edge of maize crops were reported. Values quoted by Kruse-Plass et al. for deposition on host plants outside the field were estimates only. We reiterate the severe methodological criticisms made by EFSA [Relevance of a new scientific publication (Hofmann et al. 2016) for previous environmental risk assessment conclusions and risk management recommendations on the cultivation of Bt-maize events MON810, Bt11 and 1507. EFSA Supp Publ; EN-1070, 2016], which render this estimation procedure unreliable. Furthermore, criticisms of EFSA (EFSA J 2015(13):4127, 2015) and of EFSA [Relevance of a new scientific publication (Hofmann et al. 2016) for previous environmental risk assessment conclusions and risk management recommendations on the cultivation of Bt-maize events MON810, Bt11 and 1507. EFSA Supp Publ; EN-1070, 2016] made by Kruse-Plass et al. are shown in Additional file 1 to be without foundation. We therefore consider that there is no valid evidence presented by Kruse-Plass et al. to justify their conclusions. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12302-017-0119-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorised users.

Following a request from EFSA, the Panel on Plant Protection Products and their Residues developed an opinion on the science behind the risk assessment of plant protection products for in‐soil organisms. The current risk assessment scheme is reviewed, taking into account new regulatory frameworks and scientific developments. Proposals are made for specific protection goals for in‐soil organisms being key drivers for relevant ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes such as nutrient cycling, soil structure, pest control and biodiversity. Considering the time‐scales and biological processes related to the dispersal of the majority of in‐soil organisms compared to terrestrial non‐target arthropods living above soil, the Panel proposes that in‐soil environmental risk assessments are made at in‐ and off‐field scale considering field boundary levels. A new testing strategy which takes into account the relevant exposure routes for in‐soil organisms and the potential direct and indirect effects is proposed. In order to address species recovery and long‐term impacts of PPPs, the use of population models is also proposed., This publication is linked to the following EFSA Supporting Publications article: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/sp.efsa.2017.EN-1164/full

Safeguarding crop productivity by protecting crops from pest attacks entails the wide use of plant protection products that provide a quick, easy and cheap solution. The objective of this study is to understand the effects of insecticides used in agriculture on non-target butterflies, specifically on the families Lycaenidae, Nymphalidae, Hesperiidae, and Papilionidae. To achieve this goal, a formal systematic review was performed according to European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) guidelines, by entering a combination of keywords on 3 online databases. Three reviewers independently extracted information on study characteristics and quality. The main results were collected and grouped by the insecticide used, butterflies species and family, and endpoints. The output was valuable but heterogeneous as the endpoints and methodologies of the studies reviewed were different. Few experimental studies on the effects of insecticides on the most common butterfly families have been published. Naled and permethrin are the most commonly used insecticides in the experiments, whilst the target organisms of these studies are Vanessa cardui, Danaus plexippus, Heliconius charitonius, belonging to the Nymphalidae family, and Eumaeus atala, belonging to the Lycaenidae family; the effects were evaluated on all developmental stages, with special attention to the larval phase. This systematic review highlights the need for more studies on the effects of chemical insecticides on non-target Lepidoptera in light of their ecological importance and the extensive use of these chemical products.

Stone works of art located outdoors are exposed to natural deterioration, due to several physical, chemical and biological factors. Biological macro- and micro-systems (e.g. weeds, insects, algae, mosses, fungi and bacteria) may induce the biodeterioration of stone materials. In February 2014, the state of conservation of the Fountain of the two Dragons in Palermo was examined, during which time biological colonization in some areas of the fountain and statues, was also detected. The monument represents an excellent substrate for the development and growth of microrganisms and organisms that need a continuous supply of water. Direct solar irradiance promotes the development of photoautotrophic organisms, bryophyte flora, in addition to several microbial genera, responsible for pigmentation, discoloring, efflorescence. After autotrophic colonization, some organisms find an ideal habitat also during wintertime, including two species of gastropods and two species of Hemiptera, omnivorous, a species of Collembola, mostly fungivorous. This interdisciplinary study has enabled the detection and identification of different biological communities, providing information for a subsequent project of preventive conservation of the fountain and its surroundings., Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage, Vol 15, No 2 (2015): Special Issue for Second Conference on Biology and Archaeobiology – from Knowledge to Preventive Conservation

The Italian legislation on contaminated soils does not include the Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) and this deficiency has important consequences for the sustainable management of agricultural soils. The present research compares the results of two ERA procedures applied to agriculture (i) one based on the “substance-based” approach and (ii) a second based on the “matrix-based” approach. In the former the soil screening values (SVs) for individual substances were derived according to institutional foreign guidelines. In the latter, the SVs characterizing the whole-matrix were derived originally by the authors by means of experimental activity.\ud \ud \ud The results indicate that the “matrix-based” approach can be efficiently implemented in the Italian legislation for the ERA of agricultural soils. This method, if compared to the institutionalized “substance based” approach is (i) comparable in economic terms and in testing time, (ii) is site specific and assesses the real effect of the investigated soil on a battery of bioassays, (iii) accounts for phenomena that may radically modify the exposure of the organisms to the totality of contaminants and (iv) can be considered sufficiently conservative.

Ecological quality of compost and digestate, used as fertilizers for agricultural use, was assessed through an acute ecotoxicological bioassay testing the earthworm Eisenia fetida (Annelida). The test evaluates the earthworm’s attitude to dig within 15 min into a soil medium constituted by a mixture of a standardized soil and different concentrations of compost/digestate. According to different classes of behavior responses, the sample is classified as good or bad quality (ON/OFF). The validity of this test was confirmed comparing the observations with the results from a standard chronic test developed by OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). Considering samples from different plants and at different stages of degradations, the replicates, the number of tested concentrations and the measured endpoints (ability to dig, mortality, growth, reproduction), a total of 996 observations were analyzed. The chronic test on earthworms uses the same media as in the acute one and measures the endpoints of mortality and growth within 28 days and reproduction within further 28 days. Thus, the test proposed here can be considered a not expensive and quick laboratory test and its implementation in quality assurance (QA) and quality of product (QC) schemes would enhance the protection of soil fauna. This last purpose is very important considering that, concerning the biological indicators of the quality of compost and digestate, the most important studies focused on the use of plants and microorganisms and scarce attention has been paid to soil invertebrates.

This document provides guidance for the risk assessment under Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 of the unintended, adventitious or technically unavoidable presence in food and feed of low level of genetically modified plant material intended for markets other than in the European Union. In this context, the presence at low level is defined to be maximum 0.9% of genetically modified plant material per ingredient. This guidance is intended to assist applicants by indicating which scientific requirements of Annex II of Regulation (EU) No 503/2013 are considered necessary for the risk assessment of the presence at low levels of genetically modified plant material in food and feed., This publication is linked to the following EFSA Supporting Publications article: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/sp.efsa.2017.EN-1329/full

This document provides supplementary guidance on specific topics for the allergenicity risk assessment of genetically modified plants. In particular, it supplements general recommendations outlined in previous EFSA GMO Panel guidelines and Implementing Regulation (EU) No 503/2013. The topics addressed are non‐IgE‐mediated adverse immune reactions to foods, in vitro protein digestibility tests and endogenous allergenicity. New scientific and regulatory developments regarding these three topics are described in this document. Considerations on the practical implementation of those developments in the risk assessment of genetically modified plants are discussed and recommended, where appropriate., This publication is linked to the following EFSA Supporting Publications article: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/sp.efsa.2017.EN-1259/full

Microbial products based on the entomopathogenic bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are among the most common biopesticides used worldwide to suppress insect pests in forests, horticulture and agricultural crops. Some of the effects of commercial Bt have been recorded for terrestrial and freshwater non-target organisms but little research is available on marine fauna. Nevertheless, due to the contiguity of agro-ecosystems and coastal habitats, marine fauna may be highly influenced by this control method. We studied the effect of a commercial Bt product on the physiological and ecological responses and the energy budget of two of the most frequent marine intertidal bivalves in the Mediterranean, the native Mytilaster minimus and the invasive Brachidontes pharaonis. To test the effects experimentally, we simulated the worst scenarios possible using the average dose applied to fields and a hypothetical accumulation dose. The results showed the feeding rates of both species were affected detrimentally by the different experimental conditions; higher concentrations led to higher respiration rates, however neither species showed any significant difference in excretion rates. The biopesticide had a significant effect on the energy budget, the values decreasing with doses. In addition, it led to high mortality for the worst treatments and, in both species, induced significantly higher cardiac activity than in the controls. These results indicate a measurable effect of Bt commercial products on marine organisms, and great attention should be paid to biopesticides composed by entomopathogenic bacteria and addictive compounds. In addition, the results highlight the urgent need to study not only the effects of anthropogenic pressures on target organisms but also to extend our view to other ecosystems not expected to be influenced. Gaining data at the organismal level should help increase the sustainability of pest control and reduce the consequences of side-effects.

Requestor: European CommissionQuestion number: EFSA-Q-2015-00650; Following a request from the European Commission, the Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms of the European Food Safety Authority (GMO Panel) assessed the annual post-market environmental monitoring (PMEM) report for the 2014 growing season of maize MON 810 provided by Monsanto Europe S.A. The GMO Panel concludes that the insect resistance monitoring data do not indicate a decrease in susceptibility of field Iberian populations of corn borers to the Cry1Ab protein over the 2014 season. However, as the methodology for insect resistance monitoring remained unchanged compared to previous PMEM reports, the GMO Panel reiterates its previous recommendations for improvement of the insect resistance management plan. The GMO Panel considers that the farmer alert system to report complaints regarding product performance could complement the information obtained from the laboratory bioassays, but encourages the consent holder to provide more information in order to be in a position to appraise its usefulness. The data on general surveillance activities do not indicate any unanticipated adverse effects on human and animal health or the environment arising from the cultivation of maize MON 810 cultivation in 2014. The GMO Panel reiterates its previous recommendations to improve the methodology for the analysis of farmer questionnaires and conduct of the literature review in future annual PMEM reports on maize MON 810. The GMO Panel urges the consent holder to consider how to make best use of the information recorded in national registers to optimise sampling for farmer questionnaires, and requests to continue reviewing and discussing relevant scientific publications on possible adverse effects of maize MON 810 on rove beetles. Also, the GMO Panel encourages relevant parties to continue developing a methodological framework to use existing networks in the broader context of environmental monitoring.

Gram-positive bacteria are a significant cause of nosocomial and community-acquired infections associated with diseases of high morbidity and mortality. Moreover, antibiotic resistance of important Gram-positive pathogens, such as Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Enterococcus faecalis is one of the major worldwide health problems. Over the last decade, many studies have focused on agents that target the virulence of important pathogens without killing or inhibiting their growth therefore imposing limited selective pressure to promote the development and spread of resistance mechanisms [1]enterococci and streptococci, sortase A plays a critical role in Gram-positive bacterial pathogenesis. It is thus considered a promising target for the development of new anti-infective drugs that aim to interfere with important Gram-positive virulence mechanisms, such as adhesion to host tissues, evasion of host defences, and biofilm formation. The additional properties of sortase A as an enzyme that is not required for Gram-positive bacterial growth or viability and is conveniently located on the cell membrane making it more accessible to inhibitor targeting, constitute additional reasons reinforcing the view that sortase A is an ideal target for anti-virulence drug development. Many inhibitors of sortase A have been identified to date using high-throughput or in silico screening of compound libraries (synthetic or natural. We synthesized two classes of molecules: curcumin analogues and N-phenyl-1H-pyrazole-4-carboxamides able to interfere with the bacterial adhesion, a fundamental step of Gram-positive pathogenesis [2].All derivatives obtained were tested for both the planktonic growth inhibition activity and the inhibition of biofilm formation against the following reference bacterial strains: S. aureus ATCC 6538, S. aureus ATCC 25923 and S. aureus ATCC 29213.

Invasive species are usually well known but only make up a small percentage of the European’s alien plants and insects. The ways these exotic species interact with our natural and cultural heritage are very complex and even some species considered invasive had and could have positive aspects on some European landscape and culture. A close look at the complicated relationship between non-native and native plants and insects in the Mediterranean areas reveals some unexpected twists in the story. Here are some cases of when aliens can threaten our cultural heritage or being part of it

Question number: EFSA-Q-2009-00444 on request from Competent Authority of Germany; The EFSA GMO Panel previously assessed the four single events combined to produce a four-event stack maize Bt11 × MIR162 × MIR604 × GA21 and did not identify safety concerns. In this opinion, the EFSA GMO Panel assesses the four-event stack maize and all its subcombinations independently of their origin. No new data on the single events, leading to modification of the original conclusions on their safety, were identified. The molecular, agronomic, phenotypic and compositional data on the four-event stack maize did not give rise to safety concerns and there is no reason to expect interactions between the single events impacting on the food and feed safety of the four-event stack maize. Considering the routes of exposure and limited exposure levels, the Panel concludes that this four-event stack maize would not raise safety concerns in the event of accidental release of viable grains into the environment. The EFSA GMO Panel concludes that the four-event stack maize is as safe and as nutritious as its conventional counterpart in the context of its scope. Among the 10 subcombinations, four have been assessed previously and no safety concerns were identified. For the remaining six subcombinations, the EFSA GMO Panel followed a weight-of-evidence approach, and concluded they are expected to be as safe as the four-event stack maize. For some subcombinations that could be produced by conventional crossing through targeted breeding approaches, little or no specific data were submitted, giving rise to uncertainties due to data gaps. To reduce these uncertainties and to confirm assumptions made for the assessment of these subcombinations, the EFSA GMO Panel recommends that the applicant collate relevant information, if these subcombinations were to be created via targeted breeding approaches and commercialised in the future. In this case, this information should focus on expression levels of the newly expressed proteins.

In Europe, especially in Italy, different considerations are necessary when potential GMPs are to be grown. In particular high biodiversity areas such as Sicily should have a more detail plans of potential benefits and risks assuring the conservation of biodiversity and endemic species. Sicily is one of the most relevant biodiversity hotspots in the Mediterranean area, with a vascular flora of 3252 species and 321 endemic taxa. Considering the latest IUCN categories and criteria, 401 taxa (12.4% of Sicilian flora) are under threat (categories “CR”, “EN”, “VU”), and 220 more taxa (6.8%) are “Near Threatened”. Sicily is also known to have a rich butterfly and coleopteran fauna including endemic and rare species . Agricultural systems, 66% of the area, mainly cereal crops (40%) olive groves (7%), vineyard (6%), citrus groves (5%) and orchards (2%). 25% of these are within the Natura 2000 Network sites. Semi-natural systems account for about 21% of the area. The genusBrassica, Cichorium, Dianthus, Medicago, Prunus e Trifolium have a higher number of rare, endemic species, some of which have a high risk of extinction. Moreover, cultivated trees, as Prunus, have rich heritage of some hundreds ethno-varieties, results of centuries of selection practices of farmers. Sicilian territory will likely continue to have among its characteristics an entirely agricultural vocation, with a greater extension of organic agriculture, even in the presence of forms of integration with other sectors such as tourism and protection. For the above reasons Sicily was chosen as a pilot area to study the potential impact of PGMs on biodiversity. Model is based on the potential GMPs, their, traits, areas grown, potential gene flows, distance from natural areas. Moreover an ecological approach for selection of non-target Lepidoptera species for ecological risk assessment of PGMs in Sicily, using data collected over a 3-year period, is reported.

Requestor: European CommissionQuestion number: EFSA-Q-2015-00126; The Scientific Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA GMO Panel) has evaluated the overall safety of genetically modified (GM) carnation SHD-27531-4 cut flowers to be imported into the European Union (EU) for ornamental use. The genetic modification results in the flowers having purple petals. The stability of the new colour trait was observed over multiple vegetative generations. The purple colour of the petals comes from the altered expression levels of anthocyanins, common pigments found in edible fruits and vegetables. Considering the intended use of the GM carnation and the possible routes of exposure, the EFSA GMO Panel did not find indications that the genetic modification will increase the risk of allergy among those coming into contact with carnations. Overall there are no reasons for safety concerns of carnation SHD-27351-4 for humans. The EFSA GMO Panel also considered whether viable seed or pollen from GM carnation cut flowers could be dispersed into the environment and whether GM carnation can be propagated by rooting. Owing to the limited environmental exposure and the biology of the plant, the EFSA GMO Panel did not identify any environmental safety concerns and agrees with the scope of the post-market environmental monitoring plan. The EFSA GMO Panel concludes that the import, distribution and retailing of the GM carnation will not cause adverse effects on human health or the environment.