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Observed magnitudes of Qianfan spacecraft range from 4 when they are near zenith to 8 when low in the sky. Nearly all of the observations can be modeled with a nadir-facing flat antenna panel and the underside of a zenith-facing solar array, both with Lambertian reflectance properties. These satellites will impact astronomical research unless their brightness is reduced.

The BlueWalker 3 satellite is now fainter than during the first months after deployment. The greatest improvement is that the average maximum luminosity near zenith has been reduced from magnitude 1.0 to 2.2. However, the spacecraft is still usually bright enough to interfere with astronomical research.

The mean apparent magnitude of Starlink Mini Direct-To-Cell (DTC) satellites is 4.62 while the mean of magnitudes adjusted to a uniform distance of 1000 km is 5.50. DTCs average 4.9 times brighter than other Starlink Mini spacecraft at a common distance. We cannot currently separate the effects of the DTC antenna itself, the different attitude modes that may be required for DTC operations and to what extent brightness mitigation procedures were in place at the times of our observations. In a best case scenario, where DTC brightness mitigation is as successful as that for other Minis and the DTC antenna does not add significantly to brightness, we estimate that DTCs will be about 2.6 times as bright as the others based upon their lower altitudes. The DTCs spend a greater fraction of their time in the Earth's shadow than satellites at higher altitudes. That will offset some of their impact on astronomical observing.

SpaceX recently proposed to orbit 19,440 Starlink internet satellites at a low altitude of 350 km instead of the current 550 km. The distribution in the sky and the apparent magnitudes of these spacecraft are simulated in this paper. During astronomical twilight the impact of spacecraft at 350 km on astronomical observations would be more severe than those at 550 km. However, during the hours of darkness those at 350 km would have a less severe impact. The qualitative statement made by SpaceX to the US Federal Communications Commision is consistent with the quantitative results reported here., Comment: This paper has been reviewed by the IAU-CPS

Starlink satellites can become extremely bright when sunlight reflects specularly to an observer on the ground. The observed brightness of such flares is consistent with a bidirectional reflectance function of the Starlink satellite chassis. These findings are applied to the case of an extreme flare that was reported as an Unidentified Aerial Phenomena by the pilots of two commercial aircraft.

Observations of Starlink V2 Mini satellites during orbit-raising suggest that SpaceX applies brightness mitigation when they reach a height of 357 km. The mean apparent magnitudes for objects below that height threshold is 2.68 while the mean for those above is 6.46. When magnitudes are adjusted to a uniform distance of 1000 km the means are 4.58 and 7.52, respectively. The difference of 2.94 between distance-adjusted magnitudes above and below threshold implies that mitigation is 93% effective in reducing the brightness of orbit-raising spacecraft. Orbit-raising Mini spacecraft have a smaller impact on astronomical observations than higher altitude on-station spacecraft because they are relatively few in number. They also spend less time traversing the sky and spend longer in the Earth's shadow. These low-altitude objects will be more out-of-focus in large telescopes such as the LSST which reduces their impact, too. However, they attract considerable public attention and airline pilots have reported them as Unidentified Aerial Phenomena.

The illumination phase functions for Starlink Mini satellites are determined for times of twilight and darkness. Those functions are then evaluated to give apparent magnitudes over a grid of points across the sky and over a range of solar angles below the horizon. Sky maps and a table of satellite magnitude distributions are presented. The largest areas of sky with satellites brighter than magnitudes 6 and 7 both occur during twilight. Brightness surges, known as flares, are also characterized.

Photometric characteristics for all models of Starlink satellites launched to date are reviewed. The Original design that lacked brightness mitigation is the most luminous. SpaceX installed a sunshade on the VisorSat model which reduced its luminosity by a factor of 3. The visor was omitted on Post-VisorSat spacecraft with laser communication which followed, but the company added a reflective layer which resulted in an intermediate brightness between Original and VisorSat. SpaceX is applying advanced brightness mitigation techniques to their Generation 2 Starlink satellites which are larger. The first of these, called Minis, are dimmer than Gen 1 Starlinks despite their greater size. Photometric observations verify that brightness mitigation efforts employed by SpaceX reduce spacecraft luminosity substantially. However, the satellites still have some negative impact on astronomical observations and the very large satellites planned for later in Gen 2 may interfere more seriously.

Starlink Generation 2 Mini satellites are fainter than Gen 1 spacecraft despite their larger size. The mean of apparent magnitudes for satellites in brightness mitigation mode is 7.06 +/- 0.10. When these magnitudes are adjusted to a uniform distance of 1,000 km that mean is 7.87 +/- 0.09. The brightness mitigation mode reduces distance-adjusted satellite luminosity by a factor of 12 relative to spacecraft that are not mitigated.

The BlueWalker 3 (BW3) satellite was folded into a compact object when launched on 2022 September 11. The spacecraft's apparent visual magnitude initially ranged from about 4 to 8. Observations on November 11 revealed that the brightness increased by 4 magnitudes which indicated that the spacecraft had deployed into a large flat-panel shape. The satellite then faded by several magnitudes in December before returning to its full luminosity; this was followed by additional faint periods in 2023 February and March. We discuss the probable cause of the dimming phenomena and identify a geometrical circumstance where the satellite is abnormally bright. The luminosity of BW3 can be represented with a brightness model which is based on the satellite shape and orientation as well as a reflection function having Lambertian and pseudo-specular components. Apparent magnitudes are most frequently between 2.0 and 3.0. When BW3 is near zenith the magnitude is about 1.4.

The brightness of Starlink satellites during orbit parking and orbit raising decreased significantly in 2020 when the operator modified their orientation. The mean apparent magnitude before the change was 3.90 +/- 0.18, while afterward it was 5.69 +/- 0.06. When magnitudes are adjusted to a standard distance of 1,000 km the means are 4.86 +/- 0.16 and 7.31 +/- 0.05. The difference at the standard distance indicates that spacecraft with adjusted roll angles are 90% fainter on average than the earlier ones.

Observations of BlueWalker 3 (BW3) beginning on December 8 of this year indicate that its apparent brightness had decreased. We postulate that the orbital beta angle and resultant solar power considerations required an adjustment to the satellite attitude around that time. So, the nominally zenith facing side of the flat-panel shaped spacecraft, which supports the solar array, was tilted toward the Sun. Consequently, the nadir side, which is seen by observers on the ground, was mostly dark. Thus, BW3 has generally appeared faint and on some occasions was not seen at all. The amount of fading was up to 4 magnitudes. Numerical modeling indicates that the amount of tilt was in the range 13{\deg} to 16{\deg}. This situation indicates the improvement in the appearance of BW3 from the ground that can be achieved with small tilts of the spacecraft. Satellite operators and astronomers can jointly address the adverse impact of bright satellites on celestial observations based on this finding.

Observations have been carried out in order to assess the optical characteristics of the BlueWalker 3 spacecraft which is the prototype for a new satellite constellation. The illumination phase function has been determined and evaluated. The average visual magnitude when seen overhead at the beginning or ending of astronomical twilight is found to be +1.4., Comment: This manuscript replaces the version dated 2022 November 14. A more robust illumination phase function has been determined from 146 magnitudes recorded through November 24

A large dataset of visual magnitudes for all three designs of Starlink satellites is analyzed. Brightness phase functions are derived for the Original, VisorSat and Post-VisorSat models. Similarities and differences between the functions for these spacecraft are noted. A metric called the characteristic magnitude is defined as the average brightness of a satellite when seen overhead at the end of astronomical twilight. When the phase functions are evaluated according to this metric, the characteristic magnitudes are: Original, 4.7; VisorSat, 6.2; and Post-VisorSat, 5.5.

Visual magnitudes and sky coordinates are projected for the full constellation of Starlink satellites. The results are presented in the form of sky maps and numerical tables. Observer latitudes from the equator to 60 degrees are considered. The solar elevations include -12 deg (the end of nautical twilight), -18 deg (the end of astronomical twilight) and -30 deg.

Large constellations of artificial satellites are beginning to interfere with observation of the night sky. Visual magnitude measurements of these spacecraft are useful as empirical data for monitoring and characterizing their brightness. This paper describes the method used for recording brightness by eye. Selected findings from previous studies of visual satellite luminosity are summarized.

The mean apparent magnitude and the mean of magnitudes adjusted to a standard distance are reported. The illumination phase function for OneWeb satellites is determined and it differs strongly from that of VisorSat spacecraft. Brightness flares are characterized and the mean rate of magnitude variation during a pass is determined. Tools for planning observations that minimize interference from bright satellites are illustrated and discussed.

A model based on celestial geometry and atmospheric physics predicts the dimming and the color of lunar eclipses. Corresponding visual magnitudes and color indices for eclipses from year 2000 through 2050 are listed. The enlargement of the Earth's umbral shadow reported by observers for over 300 years is explained. The geometrical aspects of the model are the sizes and separations of the Sun, Moon and Earth. Atmospheric effects include refraction, absorption and focusing of sunlight.

A model that combines celestial geometry and atmospheric physics is used to calculate the dimming of artificial satellites as they enter and exit the Earth's shadow. Refraction of sunlight by the terrestrial atmosphere can illuminate a satellite while it is inside the eclipse region determined from geometry alone. Meanwhile, refraction combines with atmospheric absorption to dim the satellites for tens of km outside of that region. Spacecraft brightness is reduced more in blue light than in red because absorption of sunlight is stronger at shorter wavelengths. Observations from the MMT-9 robotic observatory are consistent with the model predictions. Tables of satellite brightness as functions of their location in the eclipse region are provided.

Magnitudes for the VisorSat and Original-design types were analyzed separately and by time. Mean values are compared with those from other large-scale photometric studies, and some signficant differences are noted. The illumination phase functions for Starlink satellites indicate strong forward scattering of sunlight. They are also time-dependent on a scale of months and years. These phase functions improve the predictability of satellite magnitudes. A Starlink Brightness Function tailored to the satellite shape also improves magnitude predictions. Brightness flares lasting a few seconds are characterized and the mean rate of magnitude variation during a pass is determined. Observation planning tools, including graphs and statistics of predicted magnitudes, are discussed and illustrated.

A BRDF for the VisorSat model of Starlink satellites is described. The parameter coefficients were determined by least squares fitting to more than 10,000 magnitudes recorded by the MMT-9 robotic observatory. The BRDF is defined in a satellite-centered coordinate system (SCCS) which corresponds to the physical shape of the spacecraft and to the direction of the Sun. The three parameters of the model in the SCCS are the elevations of the Sun and of MMT-9 along with the azimuth of MMT-9 relative to that of the Sun. The mean VisorSat magnitude at a standardized distance of 1,000 km is 6.84 and the RMS of the distribution around that mean is 1.05. After the magnitudes are adjusted with the BRDF, the RMS reduces to 0.51. The set of MMT-9 observations transformed to the SCCS is available from the author.

The mean of 430 visual magnitudes of VisorSats adjusted to a distance of 550-km (the operational altitude) is 5.92 +/-0.04. This is the characteristic brightness of these satellites when observed at zenith. VisorSats average 1.29 magnitudes fainter than the original-design Starlink satellites and, thus, they are 31% as bright.

The mean visual magnitude of OneWeb satellites at the standard satellite distance of 1,000 km is 7.18 +/-0.03 . When this value is adjusted to the nominal 1,200 km altitude of a OneWeb satellite in orbit it corresponds to magnitude 7.58 which is an indication of the mean brightness at zenith. The OneWeb satellites are fainter than the original Starlink satellites at a common distance. Preliminary data on the new and dimmer VisorSat design for Starlink suggests that they are still brighter than OneWeb at the satellites' respective operational altitudes.

The mean of 830 visual magnitudes adjusted to a distance of 550 km (the operational altitude) is 4.63 +/-0.02. The data on DarkSat, the low-albedo satellite, indicate that it is fainter than the others by 1.6 magnitudes or 78%. However, there is considerable uncertainty in this value due to the small number of observations. Some satellites were observed to flare by 10,000 times their normal brightness. These statistics can serve as a baseline for assessing the reduced brightness of the VisorSat design for future Starlink satellites.

The Starlink satellites are shaped like flat panels. The flat sides face zenith and nadir during normal operations. Their brightness is determined by the product of the solar illumination on the downward facing side of the panel multiplied by the area of that side projected toward the observer on Earth. This geometry leads to a unique brightness function that is not shared by other satellites. For example, the observed brightness is very sensitive to the solar elevation angle. There are circumstances where sunlight only illuminates the upward facing side of the satellite rendering it invisible to Earth-based observers. A brightness model depending on the solar aspect and the observer aspect of the flat panel, in addition to the satellite distance, is described. Absolute brightness is the only free parameter of the model, and it is taken to be that at a distance of 1,000 km when the solar and observer factors are unity. This model has been successfully fitted to a set of observed magnitudes. The absolute visual magnitude of a Starlink satellite as determined from this fitting is 4.1 +/- 0.1. The model could be used to determine the absolute magnitude of the Starlink satellite known as Dark Sat which has a special low-albedo coating.

Improved equations for computing planetary magnitudes are reported. These formulas model V-band observations acquired from the time of the earliest filter photometry in the 1950s up to the present era. The new equations incorporate several terms that have not previously been used for generating physical ephemerides. These include the rotation and revolution angles of Mars, the sub-solar and sub-Earth latitudes of Uranus, and the secular time dependence of Neptune. Formulas for use in The Astronomical Almanac cover the planetary phase angles visible from Earth. Supplementary equations cover those phase angles beyond the geocentric limits. Geocentric magnitudes were computed over a span of at least 50 years and the results were statistically analyzed. The mean, variation and extreme magnitudes for each planet are reported. Other bands besides V on the Johnson-Cousins and Sloan photometric systems are briefly discussed. The planetary magnitude data products available from the U.S. Naval Observatory are also listed. An appendix describes source code and test data sets that are available on-line for computing planetary magnitudes according to the equations and circumstances given in this paper. The files are posted as supplementary material for this paper. They are also available at SourceForge under project https://sourceforge.net/projects/planetary-magnitudes/ under the 'Files' tab in the folder 'Ap_Mag_Current_Version'., Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy and Computing

A new version of the Catalog containing Sloan magnitudes for the brightest stars is presented. The accuracy of the data indicates that the Catalog is a reliable source of comparison star magnitudes for astronomical photometry. Version 2 complements the APASS database of fainter stars.

Mid-IR albedo values of Neptune are derived from Spitzer Space Telescope measurements reported by Stauffer et al. (2016). The method of this derivation is described and the results indicate that the geometric albedo was about 1% or less at the time of the observations in 2016. Short-term mid-IR variability of Neptune, evidenced by the Spitzer observations themselves, indicates an albedo at 3.6 microns ranging from 0.2% to 0.6% with a mean of 0.4%. The corresponding albedos at 4.5 microns are 0.7%, 1.3% and 0.9%. Furthermore, the 60-year history of visible-light brightness variations, which show that Neptune was significantly fainter a few decades ago, suggests that the mid-IR albedo during that earlier period of time may have been much less than 1%. The albedo values reported here can have implications for models of Neptune's atmosphere. However, the mid-IR brightness of Neptune cannot contribute very strongly to its total albedo because the Sun emits only about 2% of its flux long-ward of 3 micron. By contrast, the Sun emits 42% of its flux at visible and near-UV wavelengths where the planet's albedo is in the tens of percents.

Published reflectance data covering several different wavelength intervals has been combined and analyzed in order to determine the spherical bolometric albedo of Mercury. The resulting value of 0.088 +/- 0.003 spans wavelengths from 0 to 4 {\mu}m which includes over 99% of the solar flux. This bolometric result is greater than the value determined between 0.43 and 1.01 {\mu}m by Domingue et al. (2011, Planet. Space Sci., 59, 1853-1872). The difference is due to higher reflectivity at wavelengths beyond 1.01 {\mu}m. The average effective blackbody temperature of Mercury corresponding to the newly determined albedo is 436.3 K. This temperature takes into account the eccentricity of the planet's orbit (M\'endez and Rivera-Valet\'in. 2017. ApJL, 837, L1)., Comment: 20 pages, 5 figures, 1 table

Saturn's geometric magnitude and albedo were determined by Mallama et al. (2017, Icarus 282, 19-33). That analysis depended largely on photometric data obtained when the ring system interfered with observations of the globe. In this study the magnitude and albedo are re-evaluated based on spectrophotometry obtained during a ring-plane crossing (Karkoschka, 1998, Icarus, 133, 134-146). A better correction for the illumination phase angle of Saturn's globe is also derived and it is applied to the spectroscopy. The resulting values for most of the 12 Johnson-Cousins and Sloan wavelength bands agree reasonably well with those reported by Mallama et al. but some significant differences are noted. The revised albedo value for the Rc band reduces the discrepancy with that inferred from the work of Dyudina et al. (2005, ApJ 618, 973-986)., Comment: 20 pages, 3 figures, 3 tables

Complete sets of reference magnitudes in all 7 Johnson-Cousins bands (U, B, V, R, I, Rc and Ic) and the 5 principal Sloan bands (u', g', r', i', and z') are presented for the 8 planets. These data are accompanied by illumination phase functions and other formulas which characterize the instantaneous brightness of the planets. The main source of Johnson-Cousins magnitudes is a series of individualized photometric studies reported in recent years. Gaps in that dataset were filled with magnitudes synthesized in this study from published spectrophotometry. The planetary Sloan magnitudes, which are established here for the first time, are an average of newly recorded Sloan filter photometry, synthetic magnitudes and values transformed from the Johnson-Cousins system. Geometric albedos derived from these two sets of magnitudes are consistent within each photometric system and between the systems for all planets and in all bands. This consistency validates the albedos themselves as well as the magnitudes from which they were derived. In addition, a quantity termed the delta stellar magnitude is introduced to indicate the difference between the magnitude of a planet and that of its parent star. A table of these delta values for exo-planets possessing a range of physical characteristics is presented. The delta magnitudes are for phase angle 90 degrees where a planet is near the greatest apparent separation from its star. This quantity may be useful in exo-planet detection and observation strategies when an estimate of the signal-to-noise ratio is needed. Likewise, the phase curves presented in this paper can be used for characterizing exo-planets. Finally, magnitudes for the proposed Planet Nine are estimated, and we note that P9 may be especially faint at red and near-IR wavelengths., Comment: Accepted for publication in Icarus

Neptune has brightened by more than 10% during the past several decades. We report on the analysis of published Johnson-Cousins B and V magnitudes dating back to 1954 along with new U, B, V, R, Rc, I and Ic photometry that we recorded during the past 24 years. Characteristic magnitudes, colors and albedos in all seven band-passes are derived from the ensemble of data. Additionally, 25 spectra spanning 26 hours of observation on 5 nights are analyzed. The spectrophotometry demonstrates that planetary flux and albedo is inversely related to the equivalent widths of methane bands. We attribute the changes in band strength, flux and albedo to the high altitude clouds which rotate across the planet's visible disk. Bright clouds increase albedo and flux while reducing methane absorption. Synthetic V magnitudes derived from the spectroscopy also agree closely with the photometric quantities, which cross-validates the two techniques. The spectroscopic and photometric results are discussed within the framework of the secular brightness variations of Neptune.

Uranus is fainter when the Sun and Earth are near its equatorial plane than when they are near the projection of its poles. The average of the absolute values of the sub-Earth and sub-Sun latitudes (referred to as the sub-latitude here) is used to quantify this dependency. The rates of change of magnitude with sub-latitude for four of the Johnson-Cousins band-passes are B-band, -0.48 +/- 0.11 milli-magnitudes per degree; V-band, -0.84 +/- 0.04 ; R-band, -5.33 +/- 0.30; and I-band -2.79 +/- 0.41. Evaluated over the range of observed sub-latitudes, the blue flux changes by a modest 3% while the red flux varies by a much more substantial 30%. These disk-integrated variations are consistent with the published brightness characteristics of the North and South Polar Regions, with the latitudinal distribution of methane and with a planetary hemispheric asymmetry. Reference magnitudes and colors are also reported along with geometric albedos for the seven Johnson-Cousins band-passes.