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At present the information regarding the occurrence of human pharmaceuticals (PhaCs) in coral reefs and their potential impacts on the associated fauna is limited. To optimize the collection of data in these delicate environments, we employed a solid-phase microextraction (bioSPME) and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) procedure that enabled in vivo determinations in soft corals. Specifically, we researched the antibiotics Ofloxacin Sulfamethoxazole and Clarithromycin, the anti-inflammatory Diclofenac Propyphenazone Ketoprofen and Amisulpride, the neuroactive compounds Gabapentin-lactam, the beta-blocker Metoprolol and the antiepileptic Carbamazepine. Reproducibility was between 2.1% and 9.9% and method detection limits LODs) were between 0.2 and 1.6 ng/g and LOQs between 0.8 and 5.4 mg/g. The method was then applied to establish a baseline for the occurrence of these compounds in the Maldivian archipelago. Colonies of Sarcophyton sp. and Sinularia sp. were sampled along an inner-outer reef transect. Five of the ten targeted PhaCs were identified, and 40% of the surveyed coral colonies showed the occurrence of at least one of the selected compounds. The highest concentrations were found inside the atoll rim. Oxoflacin (9.5 ± 3.9 ng/g) and Ketoprofen (4.5 ± 2.3 ng/g) were the compounds with the highest average concentrations. Outside the atoll rim, only one sample showed contamination levels above the detection limit. No significant differences were highlighted among the two surveyed soft coral species, both in terms of average concentrations and bioconcentration factors (BCFs).

The Island Mass Effect (IME) around the Maldives is responsible for intense blooms with distinct seasonal patterns. These blooms sustain the fishing industry of the archipelagic nation, a vital source of income that occupies about 30% of the population. Through high resolution ocean simulations, we explore the physical processes responsible for the increased productivity and its observed variability, and their sensitivity to changes in land distribution. Year-round the frictional break of the currents in the presence of shallow bathymetry produces a strong vertical shear in the flow that favors vertical mixing, independently of the currents direction. The impact of this mixing is visible at the ocean surface during March and April, when the mixed-layer is shallow and the ocean currents are generally weak. A different mechanism than observed in spring modulates the IME during the monsoon seasons, in both winter and summer, when the zonal currents forced by the strong winds cross the archipelago: the flow accelerates while squeezing between the atolls, giving rise to intense wakes, and strong upwelling originates in the lees in response to the kilometer-scale flow divergence. This upwelling creates an asymmetric cooling signal in the lee of the islands and obfuscates the effects of the enhanced vertical mixing. The land reclamation efforts being planned on some of the islands may undercut the upwelling that drives the blooms during the monsoon seasons.

Introduction and research question. The inhabited islands of the Maldives archipelago are not very large in size, ranging from a few hundred meters to a few square kilometres. What emerges from a first glance in person is confirmed by subsequent spatial analyzes through satellites, namely that the space dedicated to sport is interesting. Often, on an island of a few hundred meters, one hundred of these are dedicated to a football field; on some islands, sports spaces cover almost a third of the entire surface area. This primary spatial element of the Maldivian islands opens up a range of discussions that will be the subject of this thesis. These initial observations are what pushed me to investigate the story between sport and space in the Maldivian context. Why is sport so important in the socio-territorial framework of the Maldives? Do only playful dimensions come into play, such as the dimension of spending time in an "isolated" context, or is the sportisation of space also promoted with political purposes? Does sport help build a local and/or national identity? Can it be considered a form of soft power? Internationally, does sport help promote the image of the Maldives in a context of glocalization? If yes, to what extent and in what way? This analysis is part of a broader reflection on the relationship between sport and soft power. To this end, the research question I asked myself is what role does sport have in the Maldives? Can it be considered to have a soft power dimension? Does this place the Maldives in a framework of regional trends or something that is limited to the local dimension?, The inhabited islands of the Maldives archipelago are not very large in size, ranging from a few hundred meters to a few square kilometres. What emerges from a first glance in person is confirmed by subsequent spatial analyzes through satellites, namely that the space dedicated to sport is interesting. Often, on an island of a few hundred meters, one hundred of these are dedicated to a football field; on some islands, sports spaces cover almost a third of the entire surface area. This primary spatial element of the Maldivian islands opens a range of discussions that will be the subject of this thesis. These initial observations are what pushed me to investigate the connection between sport and space in the Maldivian context. Why is sport so important in the socio-territorial framework of the Maldives? Do only playful dimensions come into play, such as the dimension of spending time in an "isolated" context, or is the sportisation of space also promoted with political purposes? Does sport help build a local and/or national identity? Can it be considered a form of soft power? Internationally, does sport help promote the image of the Maldives in a context of glocalization? If yes, to what extent and in what way? This analysis is part of a broader reflection on the relationship between sport and soft power. To this end, the research question I asked myself is what role does sport have in the Maldives? Can it be considered to have a soft power dimension? Does this place the Maldives in a framework of regional trends, or it is something limited only to the local dimension? Moreover, what role does sport play in the international arena where the Maldives play?

Verified records of the bull shark Carcharhinus leucas are lacking in the Maldives. This study provides the first confirmed evidence of 23 sightings observed from 2013 to 2023 in the central and southern atolls of this archipelago. Most of the sightings occurred in close proximity to inhabited areas, where food waste is often discarded into the water, or in several dive sites, suggesting the presence of this species in different locations around central and southern atolls. Although further research is required to fully investigate the C. leucas population in the Maldives, this report documents and confirms its presence in this region.

The Maldives is renowned for its exceptional coral reefs, yet limited scientific attention has been given to other significant marine ecosystems such as mangrove forests. Mangrove forests of the archipelago are vital ecosystems that provide numerous ecological services and support high biodiversity. Within the diverse fauna inhabiting mangrove ecosystems, macrobenthos in mangrove sediment play a vital role in maintaining ecosystem function, nutrient cycling, supporting biodiversity, and providing food and habitat for other organism. Understanding the diversity and distribution patterns of infaunal macrobenthos within these unique habitats is essential for effective conservation and management. This study aimed to investigate the diversity and distribution of infaunal macrobenthos in the mangrove forests of the Maldives archipelago. Field surveys were conducted in seven representative mangrove sites across the Maldives archipelago, covering different geographical locations and environmental conditions. A standardised sampling protocol involving sediment core sampling was employed to collect infaunal macrobenthic organisms. The collected samples were analysed in the laboratory, where macrobenthic organisms were sorted and identified. Species richness, abundance, and diversity indices were calculated to assess the overall biodiversity of the macrobenthos. The distribution patterns of different taxonomic groups were analysed using statistical techniques. Results indicate a diverse assemblage of infaunal macrobenthos in the mangrove forests of the Maldives. The identified taxa include polychaetes, bivalves, gastropods, and crustaceans, among others. Species richness and abundance varied among sites, suggesting potential local environmental factors influencing community composition. Site-specific variations in the composition of infaunal macrobenthic communities were observed. Environmental variables, such as sediment characteristics, salinity, and temperature, were ident

Mangroves are, on a biological and ecological point of view, one of the most important ecosystems in the world, supporting various terrestrial, estuarine, and marine species. They provide them crucial habitat and food, but also provide several ecosystem services, including fisheries enhancement, coastal protection, carbon storage and sequestration. However, in the Maldives, even though their role is even more important, knowledge about their distribution and biodiversity is scarce and their importance is still underestimated. The aim of our project is to conduct the first-ever survey of all mangroves in the Maldives to enhance and increase the understanding of its unique ecosystems in order to take more action to preserve them from human impact and help research teams plan mangrove-related activities in the archipelago. As a first step, we reviewed all the information about mangroves in the Maldives and found 11 true and 4 controversial mangrove species, unevenly distributed from north to south on 109 islands (9% of all islands) with various fauna and flora species associated. The next step was a preliminary exploration of the Maldives. We visited several islands, particularly those in the Gnaviyani and Addu Atolls, finding 2 islands with previously unreported mangroves. In addition, we noted the presence of the four macro-types of mangroves, i.e. fringing, lacustrine-based, banked and swamp-based, with different sub-types and instances of different types even within a single island. In relation to biodiversity, seven mangrove species and several crab and fish species were visually identified with distribution influenced according to the mangrove type. Future prospects will be the nationwide assessment of the mangrove species’ composition and distribution and related fauna and flora with the help of molecular analyses, aerial mapping of areas, and the assessment of the temperature, pH, and salinity of these environments, with the fund of National Biodiversity Future

Tourism is the main income source for the Maldives, but concurrently, it represents a growing threat to its marine ecosystem. Here, we monitored the bioaccumulation of 15 emerging contaminants (ECs) in the Maldivian reef sponges Spheciospongia vagabunda collected in two resort islands (Athuruga and Thudufushi, Ari Atoll) and an inhabited island (Magoodhoo, Faafu Atoll), and we analysed their impact on different sponge cellular stress biomarkers. Caffeine and the insect repellent DEET were detected in sponges of all the islands, whereas the antibiotic erythromycin and the UV filter 4-methylbenzylidene camphor were found in resort islands only. Although concentrations were approximately a few ng/g d.w., we quantified various induced cellular effects, in particular an increase of the levels of the enzyme glutathione S-transferase involved in cell detoxification. Our results highlight the importance to increase awareness on ECs pollution, promoting the use of more environmental friendly products to achieving the sustainable development goals.

This article explores the critical role of education in promoting sustainable development in the Maldives context. It presents the outcomes of a small-scale project, Playing with Solar, implemented in a small island school in collaboration with the island community. Because of the environmental and educational principles embedded in this project, it is presented as one that prioritizes sustainable development, actively engages with the community, and aligns with the key competencies underpinning the Maldives National Curriculum Framework. The Playing with Solar project is an example of transformative pedagogy aligned with sustainable development. By promoting problem-based learning, the project shows how key competencies and pedagogical principles can be operationalized in line with National Curriculum Framework syllabi that promote interdisciplinary learning, in contrast to textbook-based, transmission models of teaching.

open, The frequency of coral bleaching events has been increasing in recent decades due to the temperature rise registered in most regions near the ocean. Their occurrence in the Maldivian Archipelago has been observed in the months following the peak of strong El Niño events. Bleaching has not been uniform, and some reefs have been only marginally impacted. I have used satellite observations and a regional ocean model (CROCO) to explore the spatial and temporal variability of sea surface temperatures (SSTs), and quantify the relative magnitude of ENSO-related episodes with respect to the recent warming. In line with other studies, it is confirmed that the long-term trend in SST significantly increases the frequency of stress conditions for the Maldivian corals. It is also found that the interaction between currents and the steep bathymetry is responsible for a local cooling of about 0.2°C in the Archipelago during the warmest season, with respect to the surrounding waters. This cooling largely reduces the frequency of mortality conditions. The reduced SST surrounding the Maldives is probably linked to the Island Mass Effect: the enhanced productivity around small islands discovered in the sixties and documented worldwide. Despite its effects on marine productivity, the exact description of the physical processes behind the local cooling and nutrient input that enhances productivity is still unclear. From the analysis of SST variations and net primary productivity (NPP) around small islands and archipelagos, two kinds of signals can be identified, depending on the altitude and dimension of the islands. Around islands with considerable elevation and greatest diameters, cold/warm anomalies, most likely corresponding to upwelling/downwelling zones, emerge. Warmer areas don’t appear around smaller islands that usually display only a local cooling. Several oceanic and atmospheric processes might be involved. The case of the Maldives has been analyzed in detail using CROCO with, La frequenza degli episodi di coral bleaching è aumentata interrottamente nelle ultime decadi a causa dell’incremento di temperatura registrato nei diversi oceani del pianeta. Nell’Arcipelago Maldiviano, tali eventi sono stati osservati principalmente nei mesi seguenti il picco di episodi El-Niño molto intensi. Il bleaching tuttavia non è stato uniforme e alcuni reef sono stati colpiti solo marginalmente. Ho utilizzato i dati da satellite e un modello oceanico regionale (CROCO) per investigare la variabilità, sia spaziale sia temporale, della temperatura superficiale dell’oceano (SST) e quantificare l’entità relativa di episodi legati ad ENSO, confrontandoli con l’effetto dell’incremento della temperatura negli ultimi decenni. In linea con altri studi effettuati, è stato confermato che il trend di temperatura aumenta significativamente la frequenza di episodi di stress termico per i coralli. È stato anche scoperto che, durante la stagione più calda, l’interazione tra le correnti e la ripida batimetria è responsabile di una diminuzione locale della temperatura elimina virgole avanati e dietro nell’Arcipelago di circa 0.2°C rispetto all'oceano circostante. Questo raffreddamento riduce notevolmente la frequenza di condizioni di mortalità per i coralli. La riduzione della SST attorno alle Maldive è probabilmente collegata all’Island Mass Effect: l’incremento di produttività intorno a isole di dimensione ridotte scoperto negli anni sessanta e documentato in tutto il mondo. Nonostante il suo effetto sulla produttività marina, l’esatto quadro dei processi che stanno dietro al raffreddamento locale e l’input di nutrienti che accresce la produttività è ancora incerto. Dall'analisi delle variazioni di SST e della produttività primaria netta (NPP) intorno a numerose isole ed arcipelaghi di piccole dimensioni sono stati identificati due tipi di pattern. Intorno ad isole con un'altitudine considerevole e dimensioni maggiori, infatti, sono visibili anomalie calde/fredde, probabil, 0, open, DE FALCO, C

Whale sharks are known to aggregate in coastal areas. In the South Ari Marine Protected Area (Maldives) a aggregation, mostly represented by young males with a high level of residency, has been described in the literature. Despite the worldwide interest in the natural resources of the Maldives, this population is increasingly subjected to anthropogenic pressure and major concern regards the flourishing tourist industry. In this study, data collected by the Maldives Whale Shark Research Programme between 2014 and 2017 have been used to detect both temporal and spatial patterns of occurrence. Favourable environmental conditions to visually detect whale sharks have been defined for the studied area. Accordingly, a total of 1077 shark encounters have been analysed in this study. Environmental conditions (i.e. sea surface temperature, monsoon occurrence) have been used to detect possible factors affecting the spatial and temporal variability of Rhincodon typus aggregations. A two-way ANOVA has been performed to detect temporal trends in animal occurrence, sea surface temperature pattern and to investigate the sea bottom depth variability during encounters. Significant differences in the monthly occurrence of whale sharks within the same year and among different years have been detected. Similar patterns have been observed for environmental parameters such as sea surface temperature and depth. A different spatial distribution has also been detected as a function of the Indian Monsoon reversal (north-eastern and south-western) affecting the area. During the northeast monsoon period, whale sharks appeared to concentrate in a smaller longitudinal range closer to the western-central part of the MPA, where deeper water conditions occur due to the proximity of a deep depression (submarine canyon). Results from this study provide new pieces of information for the implementation of dedicated management actions to protect the whale sharks population inhabiting the South Ari Marine

La frequenza degli episodi di coral bleaching è aumentata interrottamente nelle ultime decadi a causa dell’incremento di temperatura registrato nei diversi oceani del pianeta. Nell’Arcipelago Maldiviano, tali eventi sono stati osservati principalmente nei mesi seguenti il picco di episodi El-Niño molto intensi. Il bleaching tuttavia non è stato uniforme e alcuni reef sono stati colpiti solo marginalmente. Ho utilizzato i dati da satellite e un modello oceanico regionale (CROCO) per investigare la variabilità, sia spaziale sia temporale, della temperatura superficiale dell’oceano (SST) e quantificare l’entità relativa di episodi legati ad ENSO, confrontandoli con l’effetto dell’incremento della temperatura negli ultimi decenni. In linea con altri studi effettuati, è stato confermato che il trend di temperatura aumenta significativamente la frequenza di episodi di stress termico per i coralli. È stato anche scoperto che, durante la stagione più calda, l’interazione tra le correnti e la ripida batimetria è responsabile di una diminuzione locale della temperatura elimina virgole avanati e dietro nell’Arcipelago di circa 0.2°C rispetto all'oceano circostante. Questo raffreddamento riduce notevolmente la frequenza di condizioni di mortalità per i coralli. La riduzione della SST attorno alle Maldive è probabilmente collegata all’Island Mass Effect: l’incremento di produttività intorno a isole di dimensione ridotte scoperto negli anni sessanta e documentato in tutto il mondo. Nonostante il suo effetto sulla produttività marina, l’esatto quadro dei processi che stanno dietro al raffreddamento locale e l’input di nutrienti che accresce la produttività è ancora incerto. Dall'analisi delle variazioni di SST e della produttività primaria netta (NPP) intorno a numerose isole ed arcipelaghi di piccole dimensioni sono stati identificati due tipi di pattern. Intorno ad isole con un'altitudine considerevole e dimensioni maggiori, infatti, sono visibili anomalie calde, The frequency of coral bleaching events has been increasing in recent decades due to the temperature rise registered in most regions near the ocean. Their occurrence in the Maldivian Archipelago has been observed in the months following the peak of strong El Niño events. Bleaching has not been uniform, and some reefs have been only marginally impacted. I have used satellite observations and a regional ocean model (CROCO) to explore the spatial and temporal variability of sea surface temperatures (SSTs), and quantify the relative magnitude of ENSO-related episodes with respect to the recent warming. In line with other studies, it is confirmed that the long-term trend in SST significantly increases the frequency of stress conditions for the Maldivian corals. It is also found that the interaction between currents and the steep bathymetry is responsible for a local cooling of about 0.2°C in the Archipelago during the warmest season, with respect to the surrounding waters. This cooling largely reduces the frequency of mortality conditions. The reduced SST surrounding the Maldives is probably linked to the Island Mass Effect: the enhanced productivity around small islands discovered in the sixties and documented worldwide. Despite its effects on marine productivity, the exact description of the physical processes behind the local cooling and nutrient input that enhances productivity is still unclear. From the analysis of SST variations and net primary productivity (NPP) around small islands and archipelagos, two kinds of signals can be identified, depending on the altitude and dimension of the islands. Around islands with considerable elevation and greatest diameters, cold/warm anomalies, most likely corresponding to upwelling/downwelling zones, emerge. Warmer areas don’t appear around smaller islands that usually display only a local cooling. Several oceanic and atmospheric processes might be involved. The case of the Maldives has been analyzed in detail using CROCO wit

open, Coral reef is one of the most diverse ecosystem on Earth, yet one of the most exposed to natural and anthropogenic disturbances. Threats to coral reefs include macro and micro-plastic, global warming and natural coral predators. In this context, understanding the dynamics of coral reef and the interactions with anthropogenic activities is of primary interest to prevent the loss of the reef biodiversity. Such priority is fundamental for isolated and remote areas, such as the Republic of Maldives, which is highly sensitive to changes in environmental conditions, yet, barely investigated. Thus, this study is intended to explore natural and anthropogenic threats recently impacting the maldivian coral reef. Specifically, we investigated the population structure, feeding preferences, distribution and density variation of the three major corallivores occurring in the Maldives (Acanthaster planci, Culcita spp. and Drupella spp.). The results highlighted the role of corallivores in decreasing coral cover by direct predation and co-occurence with temperature-induced coral mortality. Especially for A. planci which showed a severe outbreak in the study area. While Culcita spp. showed a more specific possible role in delaying coral recovery, since resulted to focus predatory pressure on coral recruits. On the other hand, Drupella spp. showed a population collapse compared to previous studies in Maldives, reducing the predatory pressure during the recovery phase of the reef. Thus, the interaction between corallivores and anthropogenic disturbances intesify mortality of corals. Yet, not all disturbances are known, often for lacking of standard methodology for quantification. Among those, a further disturb not known in details is represented by marine anthropogenic debris (AMD). The purpose here was to develop an effective and time-saving method to monitoring and automatically quantifying AMD, using a commercial Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) with a, L’ecosistema delle scogliere coralline presenta una elevatissima diversità di specie, tuttavia è anche esposto a numerosi disturbi naturali ed antropici. Le minacce includono macro e micro-plastica, riscaldamento globale e predazione. La comprensione delle dinamiche ecologiche della scogliera corallina e le interazioni con attività umane è di primario interesse per evitare la perdita di biodiversità. Questa priorità è fondamentale per aree isolate e remote come la Repubblica delle Maldive, che risulta essere sensibile ai cambiamenti ambientali, anche se è un’area ancora poco investigata. Perciò, questo studio intende esplorare le maggiori minacce e interazioni che causano danni alla scogliera corallina maldiviana. In particolare la corallivoria, per cui, la struttura della popolazione, le preferenze alimentari e le variazioni di densità dei tre corallivori principali delle Maldive (Acanthaster planci, Culcita spp. and Drupella spp.) sono stati studiati. Questi corallivori hanno un ruolo nel deteriorare la copertura di corallo tramite predazione diretta e interazione con altri disturbi di origine antropica come l’aumento delle temperature delle acque. Ciò è specialmente valido per A. planci che ha sviluppato un’esplosione demografica nell’area di studio intensificando la pressione predatoria. Mentre Culcita spp. ha mostrato un ruolo potenzialmente specifico nel rallentare il recupero della scogliera corallina, poiché focalizza la predazione sulle reclute dei coralli. Al contratio, Drupella spp. ha mostrato un collasso della popolazione dopo un evento di mortalità dei coralli, riducendo la pressione predatoria senza apparentemente influenzare la fase di recupero. L’interazione tra corallivoria e minacce di origine antropica intensifica la mortalità dei coralli. Tuttavia non tutti i disturbi antropici sono conosciuti, spesso per mancanza di metodologie standard per quantificarli. Una minaccia aggiuntiva non ancora studiata in dettaglio è rappresentata dai detriti marin, No, open, Saponari, L

Green fluorescence is a common phenomenon in marine invertebrates and is caused by green fluorescent proteins. Many hydrozoan species display fluorescence in their polyps and/or medusa stages, and in a few cases patterns of green fluorescence have been demonstrated to differ between closely related species. Hydrozoans are often characterized by the presence of cryptic species, due to the paucity of available morphological diagnostic characters. Zanclea species are not an exception, showing high genetic divergence compared to a uniform morphology. In this work, the presence of green fluorescence and the morpho-molecular diversity of six coral- and bryozoanassociated Zanclea species from the Maldivian coral reefs were investigated. Specifically, the presence of green fluorescence in polyps and newly released medusae was explored, the general morphology, as well as the cnidome and the interaction with the hosts, were characterized, and the 16S rRNA region was sequenced and analyzed. Overall, Zanclea species showed a similar morphology, with little differences in the general morphological features and in the cnidome. Three of the analyzed species did not show any fluorescence in both life stages. Three other Zanclea species, including two coral-associated cryptic species, were distinguished by species-specific fluorescence patterns in the medusae. Altogether, the results confirmed the morphological similarity despite high genetic divergence in Zanclea species and indicated that fluorescence patterns may be a promising tool in further discriminating closely related and cryptic species. Therefore, the assessment of fluorescence at a large scale in the whole Zancleidae family may be useful to shed light on the diversity of this enigmatic taxon.

L’ecosistema delle scogliere coralline presenta una elevatissima diversità di specie, tuttavia è anche esposto a numerosi disturbi naturali ed antropici. Le minacce includono macro e micro-plastica, riscaldamento globale e predazione. La comprensione delle dinamiche ecologiche della scogliera corallina e le interazioni con attività umane è di primario interesse per evitare la perdita di biodiversità. Questa priorità è fondamentale per aree isolate e remote come la Repubblica delle Maldive, che risulta essere sensibile ai cambiamenti ambientali, anche se è un’area ancora poco investigata. Perciò, questo studio intende esplorare le maggiori minacce e interazioni che causano danni alla scogliera corallina maldiviana. In particolare la corallivoria, per cui, la struttura della popolazione, le preferenze alimentari e le variazioni di densità dei tre corallivori principali delle Maldive (Acanthaster planci, Culcita spp. and Drupella spp.) sono stati studiati. Questi corallivori hanno un ruolo nel deteriorare la copertura di corallo tramite predazione diretta e interazione con altri disturbi di origine antropica come l’aumento delle temperature delle acque. Ciò è specialmente valido per A. planci che ha sviluppato un’esplosione demografica nell’area di studio intensificando la pressione predatoria. Mentre Culcita spp. ha mostrato un ruolo potenzialmente specifico nel rallentare il recupero della scogliera corallina, poiché focalizza la predazione sulle reclute dei coralli. Al contratio, Drupella spp. ha mostrato un collasso della popolazione dopo un evento di mortalità dei coralli, riducendo la pressione predatoria senza apparentemente influenzare la fase di recupero. L’interazione tra corallivoria e minacce di origine antropica intensifica la mortalità dei coralli. Tuttavia non tutti i disturbi antropici sono conosciuti, spesso per mancanza di metodologie standard per quantificarli. Una minaccia aggiuntiva non ancora studiata in dettaglio è rappresentata d, Coral reef is one of the most diverse ecosystem on Earth, yet one of the most exposed to natural and anthropogenic disturbances. Threats to coral reefs include macro and micro-plastic, global warming and natural coral predators. In this context, understanding the dynamics of coral reef and the interactions with anthropogenic activities is of primary interest to prevent the loss of the reef biodiversity. Such priority is fundamental for isolated and remote areas, such as the Republic of Maldives, which is highly sensitive to changes in environmental conditions, yet, barely investigated. Thus, this study is intended to explore natural and anthropogenic threats recently impacting the maldivian coral reef. Specifically, we investigated the population structure, feeding preferences, distribution and density variation of the three major corallivores occurring in the Maldives (Acanthaster planci, Culcita spp. and Drupella spp.). The results highlighted the role of corallivores in decreasing coral cover by direct predation and co-occurence with temperature-induced coral mortality. Especially for A. planci which showed a severe outbreak in the study area. While Culcita spp. showed a more specific possible role in delaying coral recovery, since resulted to focus predatory pressure on coral recruits. On the other hand, Drupella spp. showed a population collapse compared to previous studies in Maldives, reducing the predatory pressure during the recovery phase of the reef. Thus, the interaction between corallivores and anthropogenic disturbances intesify mortality of corals. Yet, not all disturbances are known, often for lacking of standard methodology for quantification. Among those, a further disturb not known in details is represented by marine anthropogenic debris (AMD). The purpose here was to develop an effective and time-saving method to monitoring and automatically quantifying AMD, using a commercial Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) with a

Le Maldive sono esposte a un’ampia gamma di fattori di rischio, come l’erosione costiera, l’innalzamento del livello delle acque, gli tsunami e altri eventi. Nel 2004 il paese è stato colpito dallo tsunami, con quasi 12.000 sfollati e 8.500 abitanti rilocalizzati in isole diverse dai luoghi di residenza. In questo contesto storico-politico, la riduzione del rischio e la resilienza dei sistemi locali rappresentano delle questioni chiave per il paese. Implementare il Sendai Framewor for Disaster Risks Reduction 2015-2030, in connessione i Sustainable Development Goals and il Paris Agreement, è una le priorità del governo. Questo lavoro prende in considerazione i casi di due isole nell'atollo di Dhaalu, Meedhoo e Rin’budhoo, dove la resilienza sociale ed economica ha prodotto due diversi modelli di sviluppo. Lo tsunami ha colpito Meedhoo in modo molto violento. Immeditamente dopo l’evento, le principali sfide per l’isola, la cui economia dipende dalla pesca, erano rappresentate dalle ridotte dimensioni e dall’erosione della linea di costa. Così, nel 2006 e 2014, sono stati avviati due imponenti progetti di land reclamation. Anche l’isola di Rin’budhoo è stata duramente colpita dallo tsunami. Ci sono state vittime e diversi danni alle infrastrutture. Tuttavia, per anni, nessun progetto di land reclamation è stato avviato. Il processo di recupero dell’isola, è partito dalla valorizzazione del patrimonio storico e culturale e dalla rinascita dell’artigianato e dell’arte orafa. Due isole, due storie di resilienza., Due to their geophysical structure, the Maldives face various natural hazards, such as coastal erosion, rising water levels, tsunamis and other climate-related disasters. In 2004, the country was affected by the Indian Ocean tsunami, with almost 12,000 displaced persons and a further 8,500 relocated inhabitants. In the context of the country’s efforts to achieve sustainable development and face climate change, disaster risk reduction and resilience capacity are key issues. The Government is working hard to implement the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risks Reduction 2015-2030, linked to Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris Agreement. The paper considers the cases of two islands in Dhaalu Atoll – Meedhoo and Rin’budhoo – both affected by the tsunami, where social and economic resilience produced two different models of development. The tsunami hit Meedhoo hard. The island economy depends on fishing and the main threats are its small size and soil erosion. Thus, in 2006 a large area around the island was reclaimed and in 2014 larger reclamation projects were started. Rin’budhoo was also severly impacted by the tsunami; there were two victims and a lot of infrastructural damage, forcing many people to migrate. However, for years local government has promoted no land reclamation. The recovery of the island started from its historical and cultural heritage and the revival of traditional crafts and goldsmithery, involving young people. Two islands, two different resilience stories.

The microbial communities associated with plant's compartments and the expression of the chloroplast chaperonin Hsp60 have been simultaneously analyzed during the diel cycle in the marine seagrass Thalassia hemprichii from the lagoon of Magoodhoo island (Maldives), characterized by remarkable daily shifts in temperature and light. Plants showed a significant up-regulation of Hsp60 expression from 8.00 a.m. to 2.00 p.m., in correspondence with the increase in temperature and light, confirming their role as defense mechanism against photoinhibition and oxidative damage. However, a further significant increase of the Hsp60 level was also observed when irradiance and temperature dropped, suggesting that the cellular stress was still in progress. The plant-associated microbial communities showed differences by plant compartment and sampling time, with the aboveground compartment (leaves) being much more dynamic than the belowground one (roots/rhizomes). In the phyllosphere, a progressive shift during the day from the absolute dominance of the Gammaproteobacteria class, mainly constituted of Enterobacteraceae family, to the increase of the biodiversity due to the rise of Alphaproteobacteria was observed. Belowground, the microbial diversity was much lower than aboveground, being Gammaproteobacteria the most represented class throughout all sampling times. Vibrionaceae family was the most abundant at 8:00 a.m. and 6.00 p.m. decreasing slightly at 2.00 p.m., partially replaced by Halomonadaceae. The combined biochemical and microbial markers allows to assess the plant stress response and to deepen the knowledge on the seagrasses adaptation to harsh and changing environmental conditions, resulting useful to detect early signs of change in an organism's physiological state. Furthermore, the variation of Hsp60 expression and associated bacterial communities in response to light and temperature fluctuations support the ‘holobiont’ theory, which considers the plant/microorganism

Although corallivory is recognized as a threat affecting the structure and integrity of coral reef habitats, ecological data on most species of coral consumers remain limited, slowing down the development of conservation and restoration strategies of the reef ecosystems. In this study, the population distribution and corallivorous behaviour of the cushion sea star Culcita sp. were investigated in the south region of Faafu Atoll, Maldives. Most sea stars were found on reef slopes within 0–10 m depth and in areas characterized by low live coral cover. Several coral genera were preyed on by the sea star. Although most of the consumed corals belong to the genus Acropora, a feeding preference for the genera Pocillopora and Pavona and a consistent avoidance of the genus Porites were observed. Furthermore, the majority of the prey corals were small colonies (< 10 cm diameter), even though Culcita sp. appeared to be capable of partially consuming larger colonies. Dietary preferences for specific coral colonies or genera have the potential to generate local shifts in coral community composition and structure and may affect reef recovery following natural and anthropogenic disturbance in an already impacted environment such as the Maldivian reefs.

Anthropogenic Marine Debris (AMD) is one of the major environmental issues of our planet to date, and plastic accounts for 80% of total AMD. Beaches represent one of the main marine compartment where AMD accumulates, but few and scattered regional assessments are available from literature reporting quantitative estimation of AMD distributed on the shorelines. However, accessing information on the AMD accumulation rate on beaches, and the associated spatiotemporal oscillations, would be crucial to refining global estimation on the dispersal mechanisms. In our work, we address this issue by proposing an ad-hoc methodology for monitoring and automatically quantifying AMD, based on the combined use of a commercial Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) (equipped with an RGB high-resolution camera) and a deep-learning based software (i.e.: PlasticFinder). Remote areas were monitored by UAV and were inspected by operators on the ground to check and to categorise all AMD dispersed on the beach. The high-resolution images obtained from UAV allowed to visually detect a percentage of the objects on the shores higher than 87.8%, thus providing suitable images to populate training and testing datasets, as well as gold standards to evaluate the software performance. PlasticFinder reached a Sensitivity of 67%, with a Positive Predictive Value of 94%, in the automatic detection of AMD, but a limitation was found, due to reduced sunlight conditions, thus restricting to the use of the software in its present version. We, therefore, confirmed the efficiency of commercial UAVs as tools for AMD monitoring and demonstrated - for the first time - the potential of deep learning for the automatic detection and quantification of AMD.

Outbreaks of the corallivorous crown-of-thorns seastars have received increasing attention due to their negative impacts on coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific Ocean. However, outbreaks in remote and dislocated islands are still poorly understood. This study aims to begin filling informational gaps regarding outbreaks of Acanthaster planci in the remote islands of the central Ari Atoll, Republic of Maldives. The population of A. planci was monitored during three periods over 2 years (2015–2016) to evaluate variations in abundance and to characterise size structure and feeding behaviour. The outbreak appeared to be severe and active throughout the entire study period. The size structure analysis revealed a multimodal distribution dominated by individuals between 20 and 30 cm, suggesting that the outbreak may have resulted from a few nearby mass spawning events. Additionally, the most abundant live coral was Porites, which was also the most consumed genus; however, the electivity index showed a preference for corals of the genera Favites and Pavona. Finally, we also highlighted the need for more geographically extended surveys to better understand local patterns regarding outbreaks of A. planci in the Republic of Maldives.

Microplastics are recognized as a growing threat for the marine environment that may even affect areas generally considered pristine. In this work we surveyed the microplastic contamination in the Faafu Atoll (Maldives, Indian Ocean) across twelve sampling station, located either inside or outside the reef rim. Sediments and seawater samples were collected. Despite the remoteness of the atoll, the scarce local population and low touristic annual afflux, the detected average abundance were 0.32 ± 0.15 particles/m3 in the surface water and 22.8 ± 10.5 particles/m2 in the beach sediments. Polymers identified through Fourier-Transform Infrared spectroscopy were mostly polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinylchloride, polyethyleneterephtalate, and polyamide. Elastomeric residues and charred microparticles were also found. In particular, the charred microparticles were prevalently located nearby the inhabited island and they might be considered a peculiarity of the area, related to local practice of burning plastic waste at the shoreline.

The Maldives are situated in the remote equatorial Indian Ocean, covering 900 km from north to south. The 26 coral atolls forming the archipelago are composed of sand and coral with a maximum height of about 2.30 m above the mean sea level. Periodic flooding from storm surges and the frequent freshwater scarcity are perceived by the population and the economic operators as the major environmental stresses. Moreover, the strong dependence on imported fossil fuels increases, even more, the environmental concerns. Diesel, in fact, still represents the main source of power generation, typically through privately managed small diesel sets. The real challenge for this area is to promote the environmental quality with socioeconomic growth. The present study aims to evaluate the strategic effectiveness to face these issues by wave and offshore wind energy. Resources using a 10-year hindcast dataset are here examined. The annual offshore wave power was found to range between 8.46 kW/m and 12.75 kW/m, while the 10 m and 100 m mean wind power density is respectively 0.08 kW/m2 and 0.16 kW/m2. Based on these results, an environmentally and socio-economically sustainable best-case scenario is constructed and two atoll islands (Malè and Magoodhoo) are specifically investigated. As a result, multifunctional structures and multi-use systems, which combine power generation, desalinization and coastal defence, are strongly recommended.

Black band disease (BBD) is a widespread coral pathology caused by a microbial consortium dominated by cyanobacteria, which is significantly contributing to the loss of coral cover and diversity worldwide. Since the effects of the BBD pathogens on the physiology and cellular stress response of coral polyps appear almost unknown, the expression of some molecular biomarkers, such as Hsp70, Hsp60, HO-1, and MnSOD, was analyzed in the apparently healthy tissues of Goniopora columna located at different distances from the infection and during two disease development stages. All the biomarkers displayed different levels of expression between healthy and diseased colonies. In the healthy corals, low basal levels were found stable over time in different parts of the same colony. On the contrary, in the diseased colonies, a strong up-regulation of all the biomarkers was observed in all the tissues surrounding the infection, which suffered an oxidative stress probably generated by the alternation, at the progression front of the disease, of conditions of oxygen supersaturation and hypoxia/anoxia, and by the production of the cyanotoxin microcystin by the BBD cyanobacteria. Furthermore, in the infected colonies, the expression of all the biomarkers appeared significantly affected by the development stage of the disease. In conclusion, our approach may constitute a useful diagnostic tool, since the cellular stress response of corals is activated before the pathogens colonize the tissues, and expands the current knowledge of the mechanisms controlling the host responses to infection in corals

Hydrozoans are able to establish intimate relationships with several other organisms. The hydroid Pteroclava krempfi lives in association with different alcyonacean taxa from Indo-Pacific and Atlantic coral reefs, growing partially embedded within host tissues. In this study, we found P. krempfi associated with four alcyonacean hosts from the Maldives, namely Sinularia, Sarcophyton, Lobophytum and Paraplexaura, the latter representing a new record. We provided the first molecular phylogenetic evaluation of the genus Pteroclava. Pteroclava krempfi clustered with Cladocoryne floccosa, confirming its position into the family Cladocorynidae. We also performed the first morpho-molecular assessment of P. krempfi diversity. All the colonies growing on different hosts revealed polyps and medusae matching published descriptions of P. krempfi, showing no morphological differences. However, analysing both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, two highly supported molecular lineages were identified. These two clades were highly divergent and were specifically associated with hosts belonging to different families (Alcyoniidae and Plexauridae). Therefore, our results suggest that P. krempfi from the Maldives is a complex of cryptic species in which the main diagnostic feature between different species could be the host specificity.