Search

Pedagogical agents were found to enhance learning but studies on the emotional effects of such agents are still missing. While first results show that pedagogical agents with an emotionally positive design might especially foster learning, these findings might depend on the gender of the agent and the learner. This study investigated whether emotional expressions performed by an on-screen instructor were able to increase learning outcomes while considering differences the gender of the agent and the learner. In a 2 (neutral vs. enthusiastic expressions) × 2 (female vs. male agent) between-subject design with additional consideration of the gender of the learner, data of 129 participants was collected. Results revealed that the manipulation of enthusiasm lead to higher perceptions of positive emotions. In addition, a pedagogical agent who performed enthusiastic expressions led to a higher retention but not transfer performance. In terms of the gender of the agent and the learner, male learners retained knowledge better when they watched the agent performing enthusiastic expression irrespective of the persona gender. Female learners, however, retained knowledge only better when a female agent performed enthusiastic expressions. Results are discussed in the light of the positivity principle, model-observer similarity hypotheses and current theories on social cues in multimedia learning.

According to cognitive load theory, learning can only be successful when instructional materials and procedures are designed in accordance with human cognitive architecture. In this context, one of the biggest challenges is the accurate measurement of the different cognitive load types as these are associated with various activities during learning. Building on psychometric limitations of currently available questionnaires, a new instrument for measuring the three types of cognitive load—intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load—is developed and validated relying on a set of five empirical studies. In Study 1, a principal component analysis revealed a three-component model which was subsequently confirmed using a confirmatory factor analysis (Study 2). Finally, across three experiments (Studies 3–5), the questionnaire was shown to be sensitive to changes in cognitive load supporting its predictive validity. The quality of the cognitive load questionnaire was underlined by satisfactory internal consistencies across all studies. In sum, the proposed questionnaire can be used in experimental settings to measure the different types of cognitive load in a valid and reliable manner. The construction and validation process of the questionnaire has also shown that the construct germane cognitive load remains controversial concerning its measurement and theoretical embedding in cognitive load theory.

For more than three decades, cognitive load theory has been addressing learning from a cognitive perspective. Based on this instructional theory, design recommendations and principles have been derived to manage the load on working memory while learning. The increasing attention paid to cognitive load theory in educational science quickly culminated in the need to measure its types of cognitive load — intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load which additively contribute to the overall load. In this meta-analysis, four frequently used cognitive load questionnaires were examined concerning their reliability (internal consistency) and validity (construct validity and criterion validity). Results revealed that the internal consistency of the subjective cognitive load questionnaires can be considered satisfactory across all four questionnaires. Moreover, moderator analyses showed that reliability estimates of the cognitive load questionnaires did not differ between educational settings, domains of the instructional materials, presentation modes, or number of scale points. Correlations among the cognitive load types partially contradict theory-based assumptions, whereas correlations with learning-related variables support assumptions derived from cognitive load theory. In particular, results seem to support the three-factor model consisting of intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load, and germane cognitive load. Results are discussed in relation to current trends in cognitive load theory and recommendations for the future use of cognitive load questionnaires in experimental research are suggested.

Many (digital) learning materials are often based on a combination of text and pictures, whereby pictures often only serve a decorative (learning-irrelevant) function. Such decorative pictures were proven as detrimental for learning success. In contrast, research on retrieval cues (also known as memory cues) showed that a visual-semantic connection between the learning information and additional pictures might help to foster later retrieval processes. This experimental series tested if decorative pictures might serve as a retrieval enhancer. For this, four experiments (n₁ = 104, n₂ = 124, n₃ = 161, n₄ = 176) were conducted where a learning video about concepts in marketing was used with and without decorative pictures. In a subsequent learning test (retention and transfer questions) with or without these corresponding decorative pictures, the memory cue effect was examined. Besides, mental load and mental effort, as well as intrinsic motivation were measured. Across all experiments, results showed that the groups with decorative pictures which were only shown in the video performed significantly worse than the other groups (seductive detail effect). Moreover, students with decorative pictures in both the learning and the retrieval phase were found to learn more than groups without decorative pictures (memory cue effect). Significant moderators of this effect were found in the salience of the cues, the associative connection between the cues and the learning information, and the modality of the cues (visual vs. verbal). Results were explained by differences in cognitive and motivational variables. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)

For a long time, research on individuals learning in digital environments was primarily based on cognitive-oriented theories. This paper aims at providing evidence that social processes affect individual learning with digital materials. Based on these theories and empirical results, a social-processes-augmented theory is suggested: the Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning in digital Environments (CASTLE). This CASTLE postulates that social cues in digital materials activate social schemata in learners leading to enhanced (para-)social, motivational, emotional, and metacognitive processes. To substantiate this theory, socio-cognitive theories are used, which predict social influences on learning with digital materials. Besides, previous empirical findings are presented assuming that with a rising number of social cues in digital materials, the influence of social processes increases. Finally, consequences regarding the design of digital learning media are discussed.

Social entities are implemented within educational videos in order to create a stimulating learning environment that will serve for social identification and knowledge transfer. In two experiments performed for this study, university students watched an instructional video about multiple sclerosis (experiment 1) or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (experiment 2). In both experiments, the lecturer's presentation was manipulated in terms of addressing (frontal versus lateral) and dress style (professional versus non-professional). The results revealed that learners who watched the videos where the frontal addressing style was used outperformed those who watched the video where the lateral addressing style was used. The professional dress style was only beneficial for retention performance in the condition where the frontal addressing style was used. The frontal addressing style and the professional dress style were also found to be beneficial in terms of cognitive load reduction and in enhancing parasocial processes.

Higher mathematics is an obligatory subject for most students at technical universities and is especially difficult to understand. Many multimedia studies have shown that politeness in instructions and feedback can enhance learning outcomes. Thus, this study aimed to investigate if politeness could improve the learning performance of students in an online mathematics course that was presented within a year. In our experiment, 277 students were randomly assigned to a 2 (politeness in instructions; polite vs. direct) × 2 (politeness in feedback; polite vs. direct) factorial between-subjects design. The learning material consisted of four chapters of higher mathematics and four post-tests. Unexpectedly, politeness in instructions did not influence the results. Furthermore, groups receiving polite feedback spent more time on the exercises in the chapters and achieved higher scores in chapters and post-tests. In sum, politeness in feedback influenced learning positively, but politeness in instructions did not have any influence.

Concept Maps are assumed to enhance learning as their inherent structure makes relations between information more salient. Nevertheless, research on how to design concept maps as conducive to learning as possible is still rare. In particular, the salience of spatial arrangement of thematically related concepts within the map as well as the complexity of the map were found to be central design elements that influence learning. This study aimed to examine how the structure (i.e., the salience of the spatial relationship between individual concepts) and the complexity (number of nodes per sub concept) influence learning. Accordingly, a 2 (low vs. high salience of map structure) x 2 (few vs. many nodes) between-subject design was used (N = 122) to measure cognitive and motivational processes. No significant learning and motivation group differences were found. Concepts maps with a low salience of map structure increased perceptions of disorientation. A serial mediation with the learning performance as a dependent variable revealed that the salience of the map structure is significantly associated with disorientation and extraneous cognitive load perceptions. By this, current attempts to measure extraneous cognitive load are questioned.

The segmenting effect states that people learn better when multimedia instructions are presented in (meaningful and coherent) learner-paced segments, rather than as continuous units. This meta-analysis contains 56 investigations including 88 pairwise comparisons and reveals a significant segmenting effect with small to medium effects for retention and transfer performance. Segmentation also reduces the overall cognitive load and increases learning time. These four effects are confirmed for a system-paced segmentation. The meta-analysis tests different explanations for the segmenting effect that concern facilitating chunking and structuring due to segmenting the multimedia instruction by the instructional designer, providing more time for processing the instruction and allowing the learners to adapt the presentation pace to their individual needs. Moderation analyses indicate that learners with high prior knowledge benefitted more from segmenting instructional material than learners with no or low prior knowledge in terms of retention performance.

Text-based learning media are often used in primary, secondary and university education. Therefore, text designers can support the learner by highlighting the most relevant information by using visual cues. Despite this signaling effect’s broad empirical basis, the extent to which the effectiveness of educational signals is dependent on moderator variables, like the design and layout of the text has not been investigated to date. In the current experiment, 138 university students learned about the formation of tsunamis from an instructional text. The text was manipulated in terms of signaling (color cues vs. no color cues) and induced learning-irrelevant extraneous cognitive load (fluent text font vs. disfluent text font). The results revealed that learners who had received the signaled text outperformed those who received the non-signaled text in terms of transfer performance. These results are explained by cognitive load, which was reduced in the signaling condition. The text font had no influence on the learning outcomes. Extraneous load induction further led to higher metacognitive accuracy and invested effort, while cognitive load and frustration were also increased. Interaction effects only occurred in terms of testing time, ease of learning and navigation. Results indicate that signaling is beneficial for transfer performance, independent of the font design of text.

According to the Self-Determination Theory, the autonomy-supporting feature of choice leads to an increase in intrinsically motivated behavior. Although this effect was replicated multiple times, instructional designers often dread to include choice options in single tasks because of the high effort in designing additional materials or a higher cognitive load for students. This study used a feigned choice paradigm to avoid additional efforts for designers. Moreover, this study examined the mediational influences of learners' perceived autonomy and intrinsic motivation on choice effects and the moderating influence of the relevance of choice options. In Experiment 1, 79 secondary school students were randomly assigned to either a group with a feigned topic choice or a group without the possibility to choose. Results show that both retention and transfer performance (learning scores) were enhanced by choice options. In addition, the effect of choice on retention was mediated by perceived autonomy but not by intrinsic motivation. In Experiment 2, 87 secondary school students were assigned to a 2 (with or without a feigned learning-relevant choice) x 2 (with or without a feigned learning-irrelevant choice) design in order to additionally examine the moderating effects of relevance of choice options. All results of Experiment 1 were replicated for the inclusion of learning-relevant choices, whereas irrelevant choices were not found to significantly impact scores of transfer and external regulation. Interestingly, all students with a choice reported a lower intrinsic load, although the complexity of the learning tasks was kept constant.

In the educational context, the influences of the emotional charge of audiovisual media are rarely investigated. Additionally, the mood of the learner influences learning with multimedia. This study aims to investigate the influence of both variables on learning with videos. Therefore, 162 school students watched educational videos which were manipulated in terms of emotional charge. The participants were randomly assigned to one cell of a 2 (learners mood: positive vs. negative) × 2 (emotional charge of the educational video: positive vs. negative) between-subjects factorial design. Retention and transfer performance were measured in order to examine learning effects. Furthermore, mental load, mental effort, and affective variables were collected. Results revealed that the mood of the learner did not influence learning outcomes and cognitive assessments. The positive emotional charge of the video fostered retention performance and led to a reduced mental load. Transfer performance was fostered in the conditions with congruence between learners mood and the emotional charge of the video. Results are discussed by considering the emotion-as-facilitator hypothesis and the mood congruency effect.

Decorative pictures, which make a learning text aesthetically appealing rather than provide information, have been predominantly found to impair learning by an increase of learning-irrelevant cognitive processes. Recent research, however, indicates that this effect is moderated by various factors. On the basis of cognitive–affective theories and studies, the affective charge and the degree of text–picture connectedness (i.e., the semantic relation of text and pictures) of decorative pictures reveal possible boundary conditions. To examine these design features and compare them with a group without pictures, 3 experiments (N1 = 108; N2 = 86; N3 = 162) with secondary school (Experiments 1 and 3) or university (Experiment 2) students were conducted. For this, decorative pictures consistent with those in instructional texts about South Korea (Experiments 1 and 2) or the human body (Experiment 3), were tested in a 2 (positively vs. negatively charged) × 2 (weakly vs. strongly connected to the text) between-subjects design with an additional control group. Learning performance, affective responses, and cognitive processes were measured. Results show that students with either positive or strongly connected pictures outperformed students with negative or weakly connected pictures. In comparison with the control group, strongly connected positive pictures enhanced learning and weakly connected negative pictures impaired learning. Although negative pictures were shown to increase task-irrelevant thoughts and extraneous cognitive load, weakly connected pictures increased the perception of intrinsic cognitive load. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)

When people attribute human characteristics to nonhuman objects they are amenable to anthropomorphism. For example, human faces or the insertion of personalized labels are found to trigger anthropomorphism. Two studies examine the effects of these features when included in decorative pictures in multimedia learning materials. In a first experiment, 81 university students were randomly assigned to 1 cell of a 2 (human faces vs. no faces in pictures) × 2 (personalized vs. nonpersonalized labels of pictures) between-subjects, factorial design. In addition to learning performance, cognitive, motivational, and emotional impacts of anthropomorphism are examined. Results show that both human faces and anthropomorphic labels were able to increase the learning performance on cognitive assessments. However, only human faces were able to influence motivational and emotional ratings significantly. In a second experiment, 108 secondary school students were randomly assigned to 3 groups (anthropomorphized pictures, nonanthropomorphized pictures, and no pictures) in order to evaluate possible advantages of anthropomorphism in decorative pictures in learning materials. Results show again that anthropomorphized pictures are better for learning than nonanthropomorphized pictures and also better than a control group. Results are discussed in the light of a debate on the inclusion or exclusion of decorative pictures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)

The signaling effect states that learners profit from cues that highlight the organization of specific relevant information within materials. This meta-analysis includes 103 studies and N = 12,201 participants. 139 retention and 70 transfer performance measures were used to determine separate mean effect sizes. Cognitive load, motivation/affect, learning time, and eye-tracking data were included as dependent variables to explain possible effect mechanisms. Additionally, nine possible moderators (e.g., type of signaling) were identified. The retention (g+ = 0.53, 95% CI [0.42, 0.64]) and transfer (g+ = 0.33, 95% CI [0.22, 0.43]) sizes support the positive effect of signaling on motivation/affect, learning time, and learning-relevant fixations. Cognitive load was significantly reduced. In contrast to the expertise reversal effect hypothesis, prior knowledge was not identified as a moderator of the signaling effect. The results were interpreted using media learning theories. Recommendations for future studies are included herein.

Body movements such as gestures and facial expressions are an essential part of human communication. While first results show that body movements of pedagogical agents in educational videos foster learning when they are learning-related, the impact of unrelated gestures and facial expressions is still not fully examined. This study investigated whether learning-unrelated gestures and facial expressions performed by an on-screen instructor were able to increase learning outcomes while considering differences in cognitive load and the perception of the agent. In a 2 (gestures; with vs. without) x 2 (facial expressions; with vs. without) between-subject design, data of 163 participants was collected. Results revealed that a pedagogical agent who performed both gestures and facial expressions led to better retention performances. In terms of transfer, participants performed better when they watched the agent performing gestures or facial expressions solely. In line with the computers-as-social-actors paradigm, gestures and facial expressions made the agent look more human-like. Gestures and facial expressions also led to higher perceptions of learning facilitation. In contrast to the hypotheses, implementing learning-irrelevant body movements did not cause extraneous processing. The results of this study are discussed with a focus on social processes while learning.

Learning from erroneous worked examples could enhance learning in contrast to problem-solving tasks. The type of error was hypothesized to be a moderator and accuracy of error detection and correction a mediator of this effect. This study examines the influence of simple syntactic (the structure of the code) and complex semantic (the logic or content of the code) errors in a programming scenario. Overall, 128 students were assigned to a two (syntactic errors: yes vs. no) × two (semantic errors: yes vs. no) factorial between-subjects design. Students’ accuracy in error detection and correction, learning performance, mental load, and mental effort were measured. Results showed that learners receiving syntactic errors detected and corrected errors with higher accuracy which leads to higher learning performance. Semantic errors did not influence learning-related variables since semantic errors were too difficult for novice learners to detect and fix. The postulated moderation and mediation could be supported.