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Query fever (Q fever) or coxiellosis is a serious bacterial infection caused by Coxiella (C.) burnetii and affects various animals and humans. Clinically, Q fever ranges from various degrees of fever to abortion, either in infected animals or humans. Such infection is especially important in cattle and small ruminants industry, particularly sheep and goats. Thus, the current study aimed to recognize the prevalence of specific antibodies against C. burnetii in serum samples collected from sheep and goats in Sohag governorate, Upper Egypt, using a commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The overall seroprevalence was found against C. burnetii (25.6%; 56/219), subdivided as 22.8% (23/101) in sheep and 28% (33/118) in goats. Animals used for this study are representative of different small ruminants (sheep and goats), age (various ages), sexes (males and females), locations (different localities in Sohag governorate), physiological and pathological conditions, and many other factors related to animals, farm, and the environment. Female animals exhibited a higher rate of C. burnetii antibodies than males (p = 0.0637). Also, females in the dry period showed a higher seropositive rate than those pregnant females (p <0.0001). In addition, the breeding system was reported as a risk factor for infection because animals bred in smallholders demonstrated a lower prevalence rate than those reared in individual breeding (p = 0.010) and mass farming (p = 0.006). Clinical and biochemical variables were estimated to recognize the health impact of seropositivity. Seropositive animals exhibited marked alterations in the selected clinical parameters and alanine transaminase (ALT) compared to the seronegative ones. Determining the exact occurrence of Q fever in sheep and goats might assist in developing a control policy for this infection and thus improve the income of the small ruminants industry and protect humans from infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Equine herpesvirus type‐1 (EHV‐1) and equine arteritis virus (EAV) are infectious agents that cause serious health risks to horse populations and are disbursed worldwide, which can lead to significant financial losses. In addition to being responsible for abortion and neonatal death, these viruses are associated with respiratory illness. Although previous research and reviews have been written on these viruses, both viruses still affect horse populations around the world and the vaccines currently available are not completely protective, especially against EHV‐1 and equine herpes myeloencephalopathy (EHM). Moreover, EAV is considered a threat to the $102 billion equine industry in the United States. As a result, these viruses represent a huge threat to the horse industry and efforts geared towards preventing the outbreak of the disease are strongly encouraged. For this reason, updates about these viruses are necessary and require more and more discussion on the nature and characteristics of these viruses to know how to overcome them. Prevention and control of abortion and neonatal foal death caused by each of the two viruses depend on appropriate management strategies coupled with prophylactic vaccination. This review presents the latest detailed information on EHV‐1 and EAV from several aspects such as transmission, clinical signs, pathogenesis, latest developments on the treatment of the diseases, vaccination, and finally challenges and future perspectives. The information presented herein will be useful in understanding EHV‐1 and EAV and formulating policies that can help to limit the spread of these viruses within horse populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bovine anaplasmosis is one of the most important diseases that threaten livestock production worldwide especially in developing countries, in cattle mainly caused by obligate intra-erythrocytic Anaplasma marginale. A. marginale is transmitted biologically by ticks (Hyalomma, Rhipicephalus). Bovine anaplasmosis causes mild to severe clinical signs ranging from anorexia, fever, anemia, and respiratory manifestations to icterus and death. Molecular detection is the best method for Anaplasma diagnosis because of its ability to detect sub-clinical and carrier hosts. This study investigated the occurrence of A. marginale infection among cattle in the Qena governorate utilizing a molecular assay based the msp5 gene. A total of 100 whole blood samples were collected randomly from apparently healthy and diseased cattle. Such cattle were examined clinically, and their samples were included for microscopic examination. PCR screening of the tested cattle showed 23% (23/100) as a positive rate. While 6 samples from 100 (6%) showed A. marginale parasite in the microscopic examination. Several risk factors were analyzed in the current study, higher incidence rates were detected in animals less than 2 years than older than 2 years, Holstein-Friesian breeds than crossbreeds and in animals kept in small farms than in the mass farming system. Clinical and hematological variables were also investigated in several infected and non-infected cattle based on PCR reactivity. Fever, anorexia, respiratory manifestations, enlarged lymph nodes, pale or icteric mucous membranes and digestive disorders were reported in infected cattle (n= 23) but not in non-infected animals (n=77). Consistently, hematological variables in infected cattle (n = 10) revealed significantly lower RBCs count and hemoglobin content than those in the non-infected group (n=20) indicating hemolytic anemia. This study shows the high prevalence of A. marginale in cattle in Qena governorate associated with health hazards and multi-risk factors, so frequent usage of acaricides, regular examination of cattle, and successful chemoprophylaxis are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study was designed for the investigation of the effect of infection by Trypanosoma evansi on the changes of reproductive indices of the testis, causing reproductive failure in dromedary bulls (Camelus dromedarius). Material and methods: Seventy-five bulls were used for monitoring of the changes in the semen characteristics, reproductive hormones, hematobiochemical profiles, histopathological characters in the testis, and oxidative biomarkers. The animals were divided into two groups. Group A represented the uninfected or control group, while group B represented the infected group. Group B was again divided into two subgroups, such as acute and chronic infected animals. Results: Results showed that the semen analysis of infected camels revealed the presence of alterations in the morphology of sperms, especially the heads and tails, as compared to control animals. The hormonal profile indicated a significant decrease in the luteinizing hormone, follicle- stimulating hormone, and testosterone levels, accompanied by the rise in the cortisol level in infected camels compared with the negative control. The histopathology and testicular degeneration were found to be associated with other disorders in infected camels. The oxidative profile and protein oxidation were promoted in infected testicles, indicating the occurrence of harmful effects in the cell. Conclusion: It is concluded that T. evansi infection in dromedary bulls causes severe damage to the testicular tissue and decreases the reproductive hormone levels associated with severe morphological disorders in sperms due to oxidative stress resulting from the infection. All these findings indicate that T. evansi can cause reproductive failure and fertility damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1), infections is found in horse populaces worldwide and cause a febrile respiratory ailment every year among foals in zones with concentrated steed populaces, the result of infection is dictated by viral strain, resistant, pregnancy status and potentially age, disease of pregnant mares with EHV-1, may abort after weeks to months by clinical or subclinical infection. Treatment of viral infection in animals it appears to be exceptionally troublesome and require a considerable measure of cost, in the present investigation, we used a steroidal saponin compound from dry roots of shallot, the infection rate of EHV-1 in vitro was detected by neutralization test and flowcytometric analysis, the result of infection rate was decreased after 24 hour by 55.7 - 59.2% when added saponin with concentration of 50μg-100μg, this natural compound may be used as effective materials for treatment animals against viral infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equine Herpes Virus-1(EHV-1) and 4 (EHV-4), both viruses are found in horse populations all over the world and leading to a feverish respiratory disease per annum among horses in areas with intense horse populations. Abortion in mares infection with EHV-4 was rarely, from another side mare may abort several weeks to months after clinical or subclinical infection with EHV-1. Nucleotide sequences of EHV-4 genes encoding each glycoprotein showed that the amino acid sequences (gB, gE, gG, gH, gK, gL, gM and gN of TH20p) resemble that of the reference genome (NS80567) except (gC, gD, gI and gP2) at certain positions. By constructing phylogenetic tree using glycoproteins sequences of EHV-4, EHV-4 reference genome and EHV-1 (strain 89c25p) revealed that there are two main clusters within each clusters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One hundred milk samples were collected from camel’s milk for the isolation of Staphylococcus aureus. Thirty-one isolates were S. aureus, 45 were other forms of staphylococci and 24 represented other bacteria. Five isolates from S. aureus were methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and 26 samples were methicillin susceptible S. aureus (MSSA). The whole genome sequence of S. aureus was annotated and visualised by rapid annotation using subsystem technology (RAST) which is a fully-automated service for annotating complete or nearly complete bacterial genomes. Four isolates from MSSA strains were subjected to multi-locus sequence typing (MLST). Three multilocus sequences types or sequence types (MLST/ST) were found, namely ST15, ST1153 and ST130. The phylogenetic analysis of the concatenated sequences of the seven genes forming the MLST profile of S. aureus classification revealed a high degree of similarity and close relationship between the ST15 and ST1153 while the third ST (ST130) was located in a different cluster. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In Egypt, tick-borne diseases pose a significant threat to human and animal health, and the threat to dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius), the country's dominant camelid species, is of particular concern. These animals are frequently infested with ticks, and may thus develop tick-borne diseases or become reservoirs of tick-borne pathogens. However, there is a paucity of data on tick infestation in Egyptian camels, especially in the south of the country. Accordingly, we aimed to determine the prevalence of tick infestation in southern Egyptian camel populations (in Luxor and Aswan governorates), and identify the hemoprotozoan parasites carried by camel-infesting ticks. Camels were checked for ticks during veterinary examination at quarantine and household checks, and ticks were collected from infested camels for species identification using morphological examination and PCR analyses. Tick and hemoprotozoan species were identified using Basic Local Alignment Search Tool analysis with subsequent confirmation in phylogenetic analyses. All camel-infesting ticks belonged to the species Hyalomma dromedarii, and were clustered with ticks of this species previously found in Egypt in a phylogenetic tree based on the 16S rRNA gene. Molecular analysis targeting the 18S rRNA gene revealed the presence of hitherto undetected hemoprotozoan parasites, Colpodella spp., in 30/297 (10.1 %) camel-infesting ticks. In phylogenetic analysis, these Colpodella spp. were highly homologous (94-98.6 %) with Colpodella spp. previously deposited in GenBank with accession numbers OQ540590Q, MH208621, and GQ411073, which relate to Colpodella spp. previously detected from Haemaphysalis longicornis, Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides, and humans in China. PCR analyses with spherical body protein-4 (SBP-4) gene-specific primers revealed Babesia bovis in 16/297 (5 %) of camel-infesting ticks, however, Babesia bigemina and Theileria annulata were not detected. Here, we report the first detection of Colpodella spp. in H. dromedarii in Egypt. Further epidemiological studies are needed to assess the risk to camels and humans, and the transmission dynamics. Based on the high tick infestation rates in Egyptian camels and the identification of previously unreported protozoan hemoparasites in ticks, we consider that the dromedary should be subject to surveillance as a sentinel species for tick-borne diseases in Egypt. Our findings underline the need for surveillance and collecting data on lesser known pathogens circulating in camel-infesting ticks, as part of a public health strategy for dealing with tick-borne diseases in Egypt., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier GmbH.. All rights reserved.)

Genes encoding bovine leukocyte antigen (BoLA) enable the immune system to identify pathogens. Therefore, these genes have been used as genetic markers for infectious and autoimmune diseases as well as for immunological traits in cattle. Although BoLA polymorphisms have been reported in various cattle breeds worldwide, they have not been studied in cattle populations in Egypt. In this study, we characterized BoLA-DRB3 in two local Egyptian populations and one foreign population using polymerase chain reaction-sequence-based typing (PCR-SBT) method. Fifty-four previously reported BoLA-DRB3 alleles and eight new alleles (BoLA-DRB3*005:08, *015:07, *016:03, *017:04, *020:02:02, *021:03, *164:01, and *165:01) were identified. Alignment analysis of the eight new alleles revealed 90.7-98.9 %, and 83.1-97.8 % nucleotide and amino acid identities, respectively, with the BoLA-DRB3 cDNA clone NR-1. Interestingly, BoLA-DRB3 in Egyptian cattle showed a high degree of allelic diversity in native (na = 28, h E  > 0.95), mixed (na = 61, h E  > 0.96), and Holstein (na = 18, h E  > 0.88) populations. BoLA-DRB3*002:01 (14.3 %), BoLA-DRB3*001:01 (8.5 %), and BoLA-DRB3*015:01 (20.2 %) were the most frequent alleles in native, mixed, and Holstein populations, respectively, indicating that the genetic profiles differed in each population. Based on the allele frequencies of BoLA-DRB3, genetic variation among Egyptian, Asian, African, and American breeds was examined using Nei's distances and principal component analysis. The results suggested that native and mixed cattle populations were most closely associated with African breeds in terms of their gene pool, whereas Holstein cattle were more distinct from the other breeds and were closely related to Holstein cattle populations from other countries., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Tick-borne rickettsial pathogens pose significant threats to public and animal health. In Upper Egypt, limited information exists regarding the prevalence and diversity of such tick-borne pathogens. Therefore, this study aimed to conduct a comprehensive investigation to elucidate the presence and variety of tick-borne rickettsial pathogens in Upper Egyptian camels. Our results revealed a prevalence of 2.96 % for Anaplasma marginale and 0.34 % for Candidatus Anaplasma camelii among Hyalomma ticks. However, Ehrlichia spp. weren't detected in our study. The identification of Ca. A. camelii in H. dromedari ticks was documented for the first time, suggesting a potential mode of transmission in camels. Notably, this study marks the first documentation of Rickettsia aeschlimannii with a prevalence of 6.06 % in the study area. Furthermore, we detected Coxiella burnetii in a prevalence of 8.08 % in Hyalomma ticks, indicating a potential risk of Q fever transmission. Molecular techniques results were confirmed by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis and provided valuable insights into the epidemiology of these pathogens, revealing their diversity. This study is vital in understanding tick-borne rickettsial pathogens' prevalence, distribution, and transmission dynamics in Upper Egypt. In conclusion, our findings emphasize the importance of continued research to enhance our understanding of the epidemiology and impact of these pathogens on both animal and human populations., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Tick-borne diseases have a major adverse effect on livestock worldwide, causing enormous economic losses in meat and milk production as well threatening animal and public health. In this study, we aimed to detect and characterize piroplasms isolated from cattle and buffalo in southern Egypt, using molecular techniques. Three hundred blood samples were collected from cattle and buffalo in two governorates in southern Egypt. All 300 samples (100%) were confirmed to contain DNA, as they exhibited bands of bovine β-actin gene at the expected 227 bp for cattle and buffalo. The samples were analyzed by PCR for the presence of piroplasms, specifically Babesia bovis , Babesia bigemina , and Theileria annulata . Samples positive for the piroplasma 18S ribosomal RNA gene were further examined for two additional genes, spherical body protein 4 gene, to provide an enhanced degree of specificity for the identification of B. bovis and B. bigemina , and the major merozoite surface antigen gene for T. annulata. The infection rate for piroplasma spp. was 60/300 (20%). The positivity rates were 10.7% (32/300) for T. annulata , 5.3% (16/300) for B. bovis , and 4% (12/300) for B. bigemina . By host species, 42/150 (28%) cattle and 18/150 (12%) buffalo were positive for piroplasms. None of the isolates sequenced for the B. bovis isolates from buffalo in this study showed 100% identity with any sequence deposited in GenBank for the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene (maximum identity value = 99.74%). Similarly, no T. annulata small subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequence identified in this study exhibited 100% identity with any sequence deposited in GenBank (maximum identity value = 99.89%). The current study provides a partial sequence of the T. annulata merozoite-piroplasm surface antigen gene, as well as the B. bovis and B. bigemina spherical body protein 4 genes, in cattle and buffalo in southern Egypt, and is the first report on these piroplasma genes in cattle and buffalo in southern Egypt., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2024 The Authors.)

In this study, the serological surveillance of Rift Valley Fever virus (RVFV) in southern Egypt was carried out for 460 serum samples collected from domestic animals (unvaccinated), including cattle, sheep, goat, camel and donkey reared in three different provinces (Qena, Luxor and Aswan). Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to detect RVFV antibodies. The results showed that 97 out of 460 animals were positive by using blocking ELISA. The percentage of RVFV infection in cattle, sheep, goat, camel and donkey was 5.55%, 65.21%, 14.44%, 20.65% and 0%, respectively. Geographical distribution and breeding system were taken into consideration for RVFV infection in these animals. The most prevalent type of infection was identified in intensive breeding farms systems (27.63%), and then in individual breeding systems (11.68%). Qena had a higher infection rate of RVFV (23.55%), in comparison to Aswan and Luxor (20.65% and 14.14%, respectively). Marked seroprevalence recorded in this study indicates a high incidence of infection in sheep (65.21%) and camel (20.65%); this necessitates the application of more effective strategies to control these types of infections in Egypt. This study provides a concise picture about the RVFV disease in southern Egypt. We need more similar studies targeted to clarify the reliable epidemiological status of RVFV disease in southern Egypt and other localities.

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is the etiological agent of enzootic bovine leukosis, the most common neoplastic disease of cattle worldwide and a serious problem for the cattle industry. Previous studies have shown the molecular prevalence of BLV and the coexistence of BLV genotype-1 and -4 in Egyptian dairy cattle; however, the molecular characteristics of BLV in Egyptian beef cattle are unknown. Therefore, we collected blood samples of 168 beef cattle from slaughterhouses in three governorates in Egypt. Based on BLV-CoCoMo-qPCR-2 targeting long terminal repeats and nested PCR targeting the env-gp51 gene, the BLV provirus infection rates were found to be 47/168 (28.0%) and 42/168 (25.0%), respectively. Phylogenetic analysis based on 501 bp of the BLV env-gp51 gene from 42 BLV isolates revealed that at least six distinctive strains (b, e, f, g, x, and z) were prevalent in cattle across the examined regions. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis of the 420 bp sequence of the BLV env-gp51 region of the six strains against 11 known genotypes showed that the strains b, e, f, and g were clustered into genotype-1, and strains x and z were clustered into genotype-4. Our results also indicated that strains b and x exist in both dairy and beef cattle in Egypt. The present study is the first to detect and genotype BLV among beef cattle in Egypt.

Exploration of new and promising anticancer compounds continues to be one of the main tasks of cancer research because of the drug resistance, high cytotoxicity and limitations of tumor selectivity. Natural products represent a better choice for cancer treatment in comparison with synthetic compounds because of their pharmacokinetic properties and lower side effects. In the current study, we isolated a steroidal saponin, named Cepa2, from the dry roots of shallot (Allium cepa L. Aggregatum group), and determined its structure by using two-dimensional nuclear manganic resonance (2D NMR). The 1 H NMR and 13 C NMR data revealed that the newly isolated Cepa2 compound is identical to alliospiroside A (C 38 H 60 O 12 ) [(25S)-3β-hydroxyspirost-5-en-1β-yl-2-O-(6-deoxy-α-L-mannopyranosyl)-α-L-arabinopyranoside], whose anticancer activity remains elusive. Our in vitro examination of the cytotoxic activity of the identified Cepa2 against P3U1 myeloma cancer cell line showed its high efficiency as an anticancer with 91.13% reduction in P3U1 cell viability 12 h post-treatment. The reduction of cell viability was correlated with the increase in reactive oxygen species levels in Cepa2-treated P3U1 cells, as compared with untreated cells. Moreover, scanning electron microscope results demonstrated apoptosis of the Cepa2-treated P3U1 cells in a time course-dependent manner. The results of our study provide evidence for the anticancer properties of the natural Cepa2/alliospiroside A extracted from shallot plants, and a strong foundation for in-depth investigations to build theoretical bases for cell apoptosis and development of novel anticancer drugs., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Neospora caninum and Cryptosporidium parvum are intracellular protozoan parasites that are distributed worldwide and of major economical concern in cattle industry. N. caninum can cause abortion storms and high culling rates, whereas C. parvum has zoonotic implications and can cause diarrhea in calves. There are currently no data on the prevalence of neosporosis and cryptosporidiosis in humans or animals in southern Egypt. Prevalence of these two infections was determined in a sample of cattle from two different areas in southern Egypt, Sohag and Qena, using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. A total 301 cattle were sampled, of which 18.9% were positive for N. caninum, 35.9% were positive for C. parvum and 10.0% were positive for both. Geographical location and breeding system were considered as potential risk factors for C. parvum infection. A higher prevalence of infection was identified on small scale farms, compared with larger, intensive systems, with a prevalence of 50.2% compared with 37.8%, respectively. Animals in Sohag had a significantly higher prevalence compared with Qena, with a seroprevalence of 46.1% compared with 31.6%, respectively. In brief, marked seroprevalence recorded in this study indicates a high incidence of N. caninum and C. parvum infections in cattle, and this necessitates the application of more effective strategies for combating these types of infections on farms in Egypt., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Toxoplasmosis is a cosmopolitan protozoan disease that has been recorded in a wide range of vertebrate hosts, including humans. In response to the paucity of available data, this study was undertaken to comprehensively establish the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii among various farm animals in different localities of Egypt. The latex agglutination test and TgGRA7-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were used to screen the investigated animals for anti-T. gondii IgG antibodies. When only samples with simultaneously positive results for both the latex agglutination test and the TgGRA7-based ELISA were considered positive, 174 (26.7%) of 652 serum samples from different animals were seropositive. The prevalence of antibodies according to species was: sheep 38.7%, goats 28.7%, cattle 23.6%, and donkeys 22.6%. Thus, prevalence rate was significantly higher in sheep than in cattle or donkeys. The prevalence was also significantly higher in Kafr El Sheikh than in the other governorates investigated (Qena, Sohag, Minoufiya, and Matrouh). No significant differences were observed in age, sex, locality, or breeding system when evaluated as predisposing factors for T. gondii infection in cattle. In conclusion, this study demonstrates the high prevalence for T. gondii-specific antibodies among different animal species in southern and northern localities of Egypt, and provides valuable new data on the prevalence of T. gondii in donkeys, which are used as a food for carnivorous animals, particularly in the feline family, at Giza Zoo, Egypt., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) has haemagglutination (HA) activity toward equine red blood cells (RBCs), but the identity of its haemagglutinin is unknown. To identify the haemagglutinin of EHV-1, the major glycoproteins of EHV-1 were expressed in 293T cells, and the cells or cell lysates were mixed with equine RBCs. The results showed that only EHV-1 glycoprotein C (gC)-producing cells adsorbed equine RBCs, and that the lysate of EHV-1 gC-expressing cells agglutinated equine RBCs. EHV-1 lacking gC did not show HA activity. HA activity was inhibited by monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) specific for gC, but not by antibodies directed against other glycoproteins. In addition, HA activity was not inhibited by the addition of heparin. These results indicate that EHV-1 gC can bind equine RBCs irrespective of heparin, in contrast to other herpesvirus gC proteins., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

A major immunogenic region of equine herpesvirus (EHV)-1 glycoprotein E (gE) was identified. Firstly, the various fragments of EHV-1 gE were expressed as fusion proteins with glutathione S-transferase (GST) in Escherichia coli and their antigenicities were compared by immunoblot analysis using sera from horses experimentally infected with EHV-1. Thirty-three amino acids of gE (a.a. 169-201) specifically and sensitively reacted with the antibodies induced by EHV-1 but not EHV-4 infection. The corresponding region of EHV-4 gE (a.a. 169-199) did not react with antibodies to EHV-1, indicating that this region is specific for each virus. In addition, when the antigenicities of three 20-mer synthetic peptides of EHV-1 gE, gE1(169-188), gE1(176-195) and gE1(182-201) were compared by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), gE1(169-188) was found to contain a major B-cell epitope. ELISA using two synthetic peptides, gE1(169-188) and gG4(319-330), previously identified as the major EHV-4-specific epitope in gG, was developed and could specifically detect antibodies to EHV-1 and EHV-4, respectively. In Japan, the EHV-1 deleted in gE gene (EHV-1 ΔgE) virus is expected to be introduced in the field as a new modified live vaccine. This ELISA did not react with antibodies induced by inoculation with EHV-1 ΔgE, indicating that it is a useful method to differentiate between EHV-1 infection and EHV-1 ΔgE inoculation. In conclusion, the ELISA described herein, using synthetic peptides, is a simple method to distinguish between EHV-1 and EHV-4 infections and will be suitable as a vaccine marker after introduction of EHV-1 ΔgE into field horses., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)