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Colletotrichum nymphaeae is the primary causal agent of strawberry anthracnose in Iran resulting in epidemics in strawberry fields in recent years. Due to the hemibiotrophic nature of the pathogen, early detection in symptomless, infected plants, especially in nurseries could be advantageous for disease management. Assessing inter-species variation by rep-PCR fingerprinting of Colletotrichum spp. within the C. acutatum species complex causing strawberry anthracnose revealed a specific genomic segment amplified with only C. nymphaeae. The amplicon was extracted, purified and novel primer sets were developed based on conventional PCR and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) techniques. The genus and species-specific PCR primers were able to discriminate the genus Colletotrichum and C. nymphaeae from other fungal species in pure culture and in assays of diseased, detached leaves. Similar results were observed for LAMP, but it was more sensitive compared to the PCR assay. Using both assays, asymptomatic strawberry plants infected with C. nymphaeae strain CCTUCch32 were readily detected. These results show that the primer sets developed in this study based on conventional PCR and LAMP techniques can be effective for early detection of C. nymphaeae, which can contribute to improved control strategies for strawberry anthracnose.

The genus Cercospora contains many devastating plant pathogens linked to leaf spot diseases afflicting various plants. Identification of Cercospora species based on morphology or host plant association has proven unreliable due to simple morphology and wide host range in many cases; hence, multi-gene DNA sequence data are essential for accurate species identification. Considering the complexity and cost involved in application of multi-locus DNA phylogenetic approaches for species delineation in Cercospora; rapid and cost-effective methods are urgently needed for species recognition. In this study, we applied rep-PCR (repetitive-sequence based polymerase chain reaction) fingerprinting methods referred to as BOX-PCR to differentiate species of Cercospora. Cluster analysis of the banding patterns of 52 Cercospora strains indicated the ability of BOX-PCR technique using BOXA1R primer to generate species-specific DNA fingerprints from all the tested strains. Since this technique was able to discriminate between all the 20 examined Cercospora species during this study, which corresponded well to the species identified based on multi-gene DNA sequence data, our findings revealed the efficiency of BOX-PCR system as a suitable complementary method for molecular identification of the genus Cercospora at species level.

Didymosphaeriaceae is a cosmopolitan family of Ascomycetes including pathogens, saprobes, and endophytes living in a variety of substrates. While a monophyletic origin of the family is now widely accepted, the monophyly of some species, their worldwide distribution, and the timing of their origin is still disputed or unexplored. We first investigated Didymosphaeriaceae species diversity in six provinces of Iran with special focus on East Azarbaijan province: based on morphological features and analyses of concatenated internal transcribed spacer regions of the rDNA operon (ITS), large subunit rDNA (LSU) and beta-tubulin, only eight samples out of 1150 contained Didymosphaeroid fungi belonging to either Paraconiothyrium fuckelii or Kalmusia variispora; our sampling indicates 4 plants as new natural hosts of these fungi. We then performed an updated phylogenetic analysis of the Didymosphaeriaceae. Results indicate that the genera Paraconiothyrium and Kulmasia are polyphyletic as the likely result of previous species mis-assignments. We finally provided the first divergence estimates of the Didymosphaeriaceae using ITS. Bayesian relaxed clock analyses support an ancient (early Paleogene) origin of the family and a recent (late Neogene) diversification of extant genus compatible with a high loss of diversity in the past and/or of a still fragmented sampling of Didymosphaeriaceae diversity.

Species of Septoria are commonly associated with leaf spot diseases of a broad range of plant hosts worldwide. During our investigation of fungi associated with leaf spot diseases in northern and northwestern Iran, several Septoria isolates were recovered from symptomatic leaves on different herbaceous and woody plants in the Asteraceae, Betulaceae, and Salicaceae families. These isolates were studied by applying a polyphasic approach including morphological and cultural data and a multigene phylogeny using a combined data set of partial sequences of the 28S nuc rRNA gene (large subunit [28S]), internal transcribed spacer regions and intervening 5.8S nuc rRNA gene (ITS) of the nuc rDNA operon, actin (actA), translation elongation factor 1-α (tef1), calmodulin (cmdA), β-tubulin (tub2), and DNA-directed RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (rpb2). Four novel species are proposed, namely, Septoria eclipticola on Eclipta prostrata, Septoria firouraghina on Cirsium arvense, Septoria guilanensis on Populus deltoides, and Septoria taleshana on Alnus subcordata. All species are illustrated, and their morphology and phylogenetic relationships with other Septoria species are discussed.

Pyrenophora graminea is the main fungal species associated with barley leaf stripe disease worldwide. Even though a heterothallic mating strategy has been proven for P. graminea, this species is mainly known based on the asexual morph in nature and there is no available information on the prevalence of an active sexual cycle within the populations of this species in Iran as well as many other barley-producing countries. The feasibility of a cryptic sexual cycle within Iranian isolates of P. graminea was assessed through analyzing the distribution and frequency of the mating type alleles on micro-spatial and macro-geographical scales. A total number of 306 P. graminea isolates were obtained from 93 fields in 45 geographical regions across East Azerbaijan province during 2016–2017. A multiplex PCR assay was developed for simultaneous identification of P. graminea and screening of its mating type alleles using previously designed primer sets. Using the multiplex PCR assay, a 435-bp band was consistently amplified from all P. graminea isolates; while a 1300-bp fragment or a 1150-bp fragment was only amplified from the isolates harboring MAT-1 and MAT-2 alleles, respectively. The mating type identity of 164 isolates was determined as MAT-1 and 142 isolates as MAT-2. Results of the present study revealed a nearly equal distribution (1:1 ratio; X2=1.582) of mating type alleles within and between different populations of P. graminea. Results of the micro-spatial and macro-geographical distribution of mating types showed that both mating types were often present on almost all studied scales, including: within the same lesion of each leaf from a single barley plant, from the same field or different fields in the same region, and from different regions. Based on the results of the current study and referring to the earlier reports on the population structure of P. graminea, it is concluded that this pathogen undergoes regular cycles of sexual recombination in most of the examined regions.

Proteases constitute a significant part of cell wall-degrading enzymes (CWDEs) produced by fungal biocontrol agents and particularly crucial in mycoparasitism of fungal phytopathogens. Plate-based screening methods are routinely used for screening protease-producing microorganisms including fungi. Skim milk agar (SMA) is one of the most popular media for the detection of protease producing bacteria. However, SMA is not efficient to test fast growing fungi, because it does not give an estimation of the actual amount of secreted protease produced by fungal inocula. In the current study, the efficacy of two modified plate-screening methods, including split-SMA (SSMA) and minimal medium supplemented with skim milk (MSMW) was assessed for detection of protease production by three representative fungal strains including Trichoderma longibrachiatum strain N, Beauveria bassiana strain B and Purpureocillium lilacinum strain PL. Protease production was revealed on the three tested media by the three strains. However, the halo diameter of the fungal strains (a proxy for protease production) was the smallest on SMA. Furthermore, protease production could not be detected for T. longibrachiatum strain N on SMA due to its fast growth; while it showed the highest protease activity on both modified media compared with the other strains. According to the result of this study, the SSMA medium is an easy and more accurate method compared with the two other different methods as it displays the actual amount of protease produced by fungal strains and therefore this method is recommended for quantitative and qualitative detection of protease production by slow and fast growing fungi.

The fungal species belonging to the Trichoderma genus are the most promising microorganisms which improve plant growth by enhancing nutrient uptake and preventing them against environmental biotic and abiotic stresses. This study was aimed to evaluate the effects of three efficient Trichoderma isolates on tomato growth under water-deficit stress. Ten isolates of Trichoderma were in vitro assayed for auxin production, phosphate solubilizing activity and siderophore production traits, and three efficient isolates were selected for pot culture experiment according to the above assessments. Treatments including inoculation with T1 (Trichoderma longibrachiatum KH), T2 (T. longibrachiatum MA), T3 (T. harzianum), NT1 (negative control; without fungi) and NT2 (positive control; without fungi but with chemical fertilizers) at three soil moisture levels of W0 (no water-deficit stress), W1 (medium stress) and W2 (severe stress) were applied to the pots on seedling transplanting. The results revealed that the shoot and root dry matter, root volume, leaf water potential and stomatal conductance decreased as water-deficit stress increased. However, the decrease was significantly lower in fungal treatments than non-inoculated ones. Inoculations with T1, T2 or T3 increased shoot dry weight by 97.2, 17.2 and 18.96% compared to the positive control (NT2) and by 32.81, 19.41 and 20.42% compared to the negative control (NT1), respectively. The highest root volume was recorded in T1 inoculation. This fungus increased root volume by 91.74% and 96.37% compared to the NT1 and NT2 controls, respectively. Moreover, the T1 inoculation enhanced shoot potassium uptake by 37.23 and 34.36% and that of root by 63.25% and 62.02% compared to the NT1 and NT2 controls, respectively.

Between March and September 2012, grapevines in vineyards of Meshginshahr county located in Ardabil province as well as Azarshahr, Ajab Shir, and Malekan counties located in East Azerbaijan province, north-western Iran represented general decline symptoms and in some cases black vascular discoloration. Annular or irregular discoloration, dark vascular streaking, and V-shaped unilateral canker or brown necrosis were observed in the pit and vascular tissues of the infected stems. These symptoms were accompanied with necrotic and wilted leaves. Nine fungal isolates having analogous morphological traits were recovered from symptomatic tissues on potato dextrose agar culture medium. Morphological and molecular characterizations confirmed the identity of all nine isolates as Kalmusia variispora (formerly known as Dendrothyrium variisporum). Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) analyses were conducted for genetic diversity assessment of 13 K. variispora isolates from grapevine, one isolate from Rosa hybrida and one isolate from Pinus eldarica and the results indicated the existence of polymorphism among the isolates (77.27% and 81.25% for RAPD and ISSR, respectively). The clustering of RAPD and ISSR analyses revealed that there was no correlation between the isolates and their geographical as well as host origins. A pathogenicity assay confirmed K. variispora to be pathogenic on grapevine plants (cv. Keshmeshi) causing similar symptoms as those observed in naturally infected grapevines. Kalmusia variispora is associated with grapevine decline symptoms and grapevine trunk disease in Iran.

Submerged mycelial cultures of the ascomycete Colpoma&nbsp, quercinum CCTU A372 were found to produce five previously undescribed tetramic acids, for which we propose the trivial names colposetins A–C (1–3) and colpomenoic acids A and B (4 and 5), along with the known compounds penicillide (6) and monodictyphenone (7). The planar structures of 1–5 were determined by high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HR-ESIMS) and extensive 1D and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Their absolute configurations were determined by the combination of electronic circular dischroism (ECD) analysis, J-based configurational analysis, and a rotating-frame Overhauser effect spectroscopy (ROESY) experiment. Colposetin B displayed weak antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis and Mucor hiemalis (MIC 67 µg/mL).

Fusarium species can have different lifestyles, including those of endophytes, parasites, or pathogens of plants, as well as pathogens or mutualists of animals. Fungicolous Fusarium species have been also reported in some studies, however, the information on the Fusarium interactions with other fungi is still unclear and the diversity of fungicolous Fusarium species is poorly known. In this study, we provide a survey of fungicolous Fusarium species and their hosts, and instructions for their isolation and identification. According to the survey, 80 fungicolous Fusarium isolates were reported associated with 36 host species and 32 fungal genera. The fungicolous isolates belong to 24 species grouped in nine species complexes (SC)-Fusarium chlamydosporum SC, Fusarium fujikuroi SC, F. heterosporum SC, F. lateritium SC, F. oxysporum SC, F. incarnatum-equiseti SC, F. sambucinum SC, F. solani SC (=Neocosmospora genus), and F. tricinctum SC. Fusarium associations with other fungi were predominantly necrotrophic. The prevalent fungal hosts for fungicolous Fusarium isolates were members of the sub-kingdom Dikarya, mostly microfungi. Other hosts belong to the sub-kingdom Mucoromyceta of the kingdom Fungi and to the phylum Oomycota (fungal-like organisms) of kingdom Straminipila. With this review, we hope to highlight the fungicolous associations of Fusarium, and to expand the understanding of the ecology and diversity of these fungi.

Two new α-pyrone derivatives, udagawanones A (1) and B (2), along with the known compounds (Z)-4-hydroxy-3-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbut-1-en-1-yl)benzoic acid (3), isosclerone (4), cyclo-(L-Leu-L-Pro) (5), and cyclo-(L-Pro-L-Tyr) (6), were isolated from cultures of the endophyte Neurospora udagawae. Their structures were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic methods and single crystal X-ray diffraction. Both compounds feature oxidized functionalities at the C-2 position not previously observed in other tetrasubstituted α-pyrones from fungi. Compound 1 exhibited moderate antibacterial (vs. Staphylococcus aureus) and antifungal (vs. Rhodoturula glutinis) activities and cytotoxicity against KB3.1 cells.

The genus Cercospora includes many important plant pathogens that are commonly associated with leaf spot diseases on a wide range of cultivated and wild plant species. Due to the lack of useful morphological features and high levels of intraspecific variation, host plant association has long been a decisive criterion for species delimitation in Cercospora. Because several taxa have broader host ranges, reliance on host data in Cercospora taxonomy has proven problematic. Recent studies have revealed multi-gene DNA sequence data to be highly informative for species identification in Cercospora, especially when used in a concatenated alignment. In spite of this approach, however, several species complexes remained unresolved as no single gene proved informative enough to act as DNA barcoding locus for the genus. Therefore, the aims of the present study were firstly to improve species delimitation in the genus Cercospora by testing additional genes and primers on a broad set of species, and secondly to find the best DNA barcoding gene(s) for species delimitation. Novel primers were developed for tub2 and rpb2 to supplement previously published primers for these loci. To this end, 145 Cercospora isolates from the Iranian mycobiota together with 25 additional reference isolates preserved in the Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute were subjected to an eight-gene (ITS, tef1, actA, cmdA, his3, tub2, rpb2 and gapdh) analysis. Results from this study provided new insights into DNA barcoding in Cercospora, and revealed gapdh to be a promising gene for species delimitation when supplemented with cmdA, tef1 and tub2. The robust eight-gene phylogeny revealed several novel clades within the existing Cercospora species complexes, such as C. apii, C. armoraciae, C. beticola, C. cf. flagellaris and Cercospora sp. G. The C. apii s. lat. isolates are distributed over three clades, namely C. apii s. str, C. plantaginis and C. uwebrauniana sp. nov. The C. armoraciae s. lat. isolates are distributed over two clades, C. armoraciae s. str. and C. bizzozeriana. The C. beticola s. lat. isolates are distributed over two clades, namely C. beticola s. str. and C. gamsiana, which is newly described.

Two new metabolites possessing the unusual 1-oxa-7-azaspiro[4.4]non-2- ene-4,6-dione core (2, 3) along with the recently described pseurotin A3 (1) were isolated from the pathogenic fungus Wilsonomyces carpophilus (previously named Stigmina carpophila). The producer organism was obtained from Prunus armeniaca collected in Iran and was identified by morphological and molecular phylogenetic methods. The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated on the basis of extensive NMR spectroscopic analysis, high-resolution mass spectrometry and ECD analysis. The compounds were screened for their antimicrobial, cytotoxic, nematicidal and biofilm inhibition activities but, no significant effect was observed. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the isolation of secondary metabolites produced by W. carpophilus.

Fusarium species exhibit diverse lifestyles, being commonly encountered as saprotrophs and endophytes, but can also act as pathogens to plants, animals, including humans, and even other fungi. Very little is known, however, about the species diversity of fungicolous Fusarium species. The following study thus aimed to characterize species of Fusarium and related genera associated with smut fungi and mushrooms in Iran by applying a polyphasic approach involving culture characteristics, morphology, and multigene phylogenetic analyses. Twenty-four fungicolous isolates were recovered from different host species spanning four host families in the Eastern Azerbaijan provinces of north and northwest Iran. Isolates belonged to four Fusarium species complexes (SC) in, i.e., F. fujikuroi SC, F. oxysporum SC, F. incarnatum-equiseti SC, and F. tricinctum SC. One other fungicolous taxon was identified as Neocosmospora metavorans. Two new lineages belonging to the F. tricinctum SC are here described as F. gamsii and F. iranicum, both species occurring on Agaricus bisporus. Fusarium gamsii is phylogenetically related to F. torulosum, and F. iranicum to F. flocciferum. Morphological characters support their distinction from their closest phylogenetic sister species. Additionally, A. bisporus and Boletus sp. are here listed as new host records for members of the F. tricinctum SC in Iran.

Stromata of a Daldinia species were collected from half-burnt sugarcane stalks in South India. Based on a combination of morphological and chemotaxonomic evidence, the species was identified as the first recent record of Daldinia sacchari. While it was impossible to obtain cultures from the ascospores, the stromata were subjected to DNA extraction and DNA sequencing and secondary metabolites were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array and mass spectrometric detection (HPLC-DAD/MS). The fruiting body extract was subjected to preparative HPLC for the isolation of secondary metabolites. Two new cytochalasins, for which we propose the trivial names saccalasins A and B, were elucidated besides two known cytochalasins and binaphthalene tetrol (BNT) by NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. Whereas sequencing of housekeeping genes from the stromatal DNA unfortunately failed, an ITS DNA sequence was obtained from this species for the first time and compared to those of related Hypoxylaceae in a phylogenetic tree. The results indicate a close relationship of D. sacchari to the D. eschscholtzii complex, from which cytochalasins are also known as predominant stromatal metabolites. Phylogenetic analyses based on the ITS-rDNA barcode (which can only discriminate the Hypoxylaceae and other Sordariomycetes into species groups, rather than serve as a means of genus or species discrimination) confirmed that D. sacchari belongs to the D. eschscholtzii species complex. However, as with the majority of tropical Hypoxylaceae species, the availability of cultures that can be used to generate DNA sequence data that are more conclusive than ITS will be imperative to further narrow down the phylogenetic affinities of these fungi.

Ramularia is a species-rich genus in the order Capnodiales (Dothideomycetes, Ascomycota) that includes numerous phytopathogenic taxa, several of which are economically important plant pathogens. In this study, six isolates of Ramularia were recovered from leaf spot symptoms on six herbaceous and woody plants from Guilan, East and West Azarbaijan provinces in the north and northwest of Iran. The isolates were studied by a polyphasic approach involving morphological and cultural data, and multi-gene phylogeny (ITS, TEF1-α, ACT, HIS, RPB2 and GAPDH). The isolates were grouped in three species clades of the R. eucalypti species complex. Of these, R. mali is recorded for the first time in Asia and R. glennii represents a new record for the mycobiota of Iran. Ramularia taleshina on Alnus subcordata is described as a new species. Ramularia taleshina is phylogenetically related to R. mali, but they can be differentiated by morphological and cultural characters as well as molecular data. Acalypha australis, Ficus carica and Platanus sp. are reported as new hosts of R. glennii, and Prunus cerasus and Vitis vinifera as new hosts of R. mali.

Trunk diseases are potential threats to the poplar industry worldwide, including Iran. A survey on trunk diseases of Populus nigra in north-western Iran revealed a new canker disease associated with dieback and decline of this host in West Azarbaijan Province of Iran. Wood samples were collected from poplar trees showing canker, dieback and decline symptoms and taken to the laboratory. A total of 173 fungal isolates were recovered from symptomatic tissues, of those 147 isolates had similar cultural and morphological features on potato dextrose agar. Based on a combination of morphological characteristics and phylogenetic inferences including DNA sequence data from the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1, 5.8S rDNA, and ITS2), all 147 isolates were identified as Cryptosphaeria pullmanensis. The remaining 26 isolates were identified as Cytospora chrysosperma. Pathogenicity of Cr. pullmanensis on two-year-old P. nigra and Populus alba saplings under glasshouse conditions confirmed that Cr. pullmanensis is pathogenic on P. nigra and P. alba. Cryptosphaeria pullmanensis is here reported from Iran causing Cryptosphaeria canker on poplar trees for the first time. However, its host range, the extent of geographical distribution and management strategies remain to be examined.

Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) is one of the serious pests of tomatoes. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of some chemical and biological insecticides on T. absoluta. The insecticides tested were diazinon, dichlorvos, chlorantraniliprole, deltamethrin, acetamiprid, imidacloprid, spinosad, abamectin, indoxacarb, Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner, Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin, and Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin. Sublethal effects for the most effective insecticides tested, namely, abamectin, spinosad, chlorantraniliprole, and indoxacarb were assessed, and life table parameters were calculated. Chlorantraniliprole had the highest lethal effect on T. absoluta followed by spinosad, abamectin, and indoxacarb. On the other hand, imidacloprid was not considerably effective on T. absoluta eggs. Metarhizium anisopliae was 11 and 518 times more effective on the eggs and newly hatched larvae than B. bassiana and B. thuringiensis, respectively. Chlorantraniliprole, spinosad, abamectin, and indoxacarb affected life table parameters of T. absoluta significantly (α = 0.05). Spinosad had the highest sublethal effect on T. absoluta followed by abamectin, chlorantraniliprole, and indoxacarb. The results revealed that chlorantraniliprole, spinosad, abamectin, and indoxacarb had considerable lethal and sublethal effects on T. absoluta, and if they perform similarly in commercial greenhouses and fields, they would be suitable candidates to be considered in IPM programs for this pest.

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From extracts of the plant associated fungus Chaetosphaeronema achilleae collected in Iran, a previously unreported isoindolinone named chaetosisoindolinone (1) and a previously undescribed indanone named chaetosindanone (2) were isolated in addition to five known metabolites, 2-(2-acetyl-3,5-dihydroxyphenyl) acetic acid (3), vulculic acid (4), 2-(2-acetyl-3-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenyl)acetic acid (5), curvulin (6), and curvulol (7). Their structures were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis and high-resolution mass spectrometry. The isolated compounds were tested for their antimicrobial, anti-biofilm, and nematicidal activities. Compound 2 exhibited cytotoxicity against the human breast adenocarcinoma MCF-7 cells with an IC50 value of 1.5 μg/mL. Furthermore, compounds 4 and 7 almost completely inhibited biofilm formation in Staphylococcus aureus at 256 μg/mL. Weak antimicrobial activities were also observed for some of the isolated compounds against Mucor hiemalis, Rhodoturula glutinis, Chromobacterium violaceum, and Staphylococcus aureus.

During October–November of 2017 and 2018, powdery fungal masses were observed on leaves of Persian speedwell (Veronica persica) on the campus of Tabriz University, East Azerbaijan Province, Iran. Infected leaves were collected and subjected to a taxonomic study. Based on morphological characteristics the fungus was identified as Golovinomyces orontii species complex. A phylogeny inferred based on ITS-rDNA sequence data clustered our isolate as Golovinomyces bolayi. Golovinomyces bolayi has recently been segregated from the Golovinomyces orontii species complex. Golovinomyces bolayi can be differentiated from other closely related species based on morphological characteristics of conidiophores and ITS-rDNA phylogeny. This is the first report of this species from Iran on Persian speedwell.

Aflatoxins and ochratoxins are among the most important mycotoxins of all and producers of both types of mycotoxins are present inAspergillussectionFlavi, albeit never in the same species. Some of the most efficient producers of aflatoxins and ochratoxins have not been described yet. Using a polyphasic approach combining phenotype, physiology, sequence and extrolite data, we describe here eight new species in sectionFlavi. Phylogenetically, sectionFlaviis split in eight clades and the section currently contains 33 species. Two species only produce aflatoxin B1 and B2 (A. pseudotamariiandA. togoensis), and 14 species are able to produce aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2: three newly described speciesA. aflatoxiformans, A. austwickiiandA. cerealisin addition toA. arachidicola,A. minisclerotigenes,A. mottae, A. luteovirescens(formerlyA. bombycis), A. nomius, A. novoparasiticus, A. parasiticus, A. pseudocaelatus, A. pseudonomius, A. sergiiandA. transmontanensis. It is generally accepted thatA. flavusis unable to produce type G aflatoxins, but here we report on Korean strains that also produce aflatoxin G1 and G2. One strain ofA. bertholletiuscan produce the immediate aflatoxin precursor 3-O-methylsterigmatocystin, and one strain ofAspergillus sojaeand two strains ofAspergillus alliaceusproduced versicolorins. Strains of the domesticated forms ofA. flavusandA. parasiticus,A. oryzaeandA. sojae, respectively, lost their ability to produce aflatoxins, and from the remaining phylogenetically closely related species (belonging to theA. flavus-,A. tamarii-,A. bertholletius- andA. nomius-clades), onlyA. caelatus,A. subflavusandA. tamariiare unable to produce aflatoxins. With exception ofA. togoensisin theA. coremiiformis-clade, all species in the phylogenetically more distant clades (A. alliaceus-,A. coremiiformis-,A. leporis- andA. avenaceus-clade) are unable to produce aflatoxins. Three out of the four species in theA. alliaceus-clade can produce the mycotoxin ochratoxin A:A. alliaceus s.str. and two new species described here asA. neoalliaceusandA. vandermerwei. Eight species produced the mycotoxin tenuazonic acid:A. bertholletius,A. caelatus, A. luteovirescens,A. nomius, A. pseudocaelatus,A. pseudonomius, A. pseudotamariiandA. tamariiwhile the related mycotoxin cyclopiazonic acid was produced by 13 species:A. aflatoxiformans, A. austwickii, A. bertholletius, A. cerealis, A. flavus, A. minisclerotigenes, A. mottae, A. oryzae, A. pipericola, A. pseudocaelatus,A. pseudotamarii, A. sergiiandA. tamarii. Furthermore,A. hancockiiproduced speradine A, a compound related to cyclopiazonic acid. SelectedA. aflatoxiformans, A. austwickii, A. cerealis, A. flavus, A. minisclerotigenes, A. pipericolaandA. sergiistrains produced small sclerotia containing the mycotoxin aflatrem. Kojic acid has been found in all species in sectionFlavi, exceptA. avenaceusandA. coremiiformis. Only six species in the section did not produce any known mycotoxins:A. aspearensis,A. coremiiformis, A. lanosus, A. leporis, A. sojaeandA. subflavus. An overview of other small molecule extrolites produced inAspergillussectionFlaviis given.

Aim of study: In this study, frequency and diversity of fungal endophyte communities inhabiting twigs and branches of apparently healthy Q. macranthera and Q. brantii in East Azerbaijan and Lorestan provinces of Iran is presented. Area of study: East Azerbaijan and Lorestan provinces in Iran. Materials and methods: Culturable fungal endophytes were recovered from wood tissues using routine technique for isolation of fungal endophytes. The identity of fungal isolates were determined based on morphological characteristics and sequences data of ITS-rDNA region and Beta-tubulin gene. Frequency and diversity among fungal communities were analyzed using chi-square test and biodiversity indices. Main results: The highest frequency and diversity was detected for fungal endophyte community recovered from Q. macranthera and East Azerbaijan province. The assemblage of endophytic fungi characterized in this study in healthy tissues of oak trees indicates that some of the fungi are possible latent pathogens such as Biscogniauxia mediterranea with 18.28% frequency followed by Alternaria alternata and Trichothecium roseum respectively. Two fungal taxa of Pyronema domesticum and Valsa persoonii are reported for the first time in Iran. Overall, the results of this study show that the plant species and growth location influence frequency and diversity of culturable fungal endophytic communities of Quercus in Iran. Keywords: Quercus macranthera , Quercus brantii , Fungal endophytes, Molecular identification. Abbreviations used: CBS (Centraal Bureau voor Schimmelcultures); CCTU (Culture Collection of University of Tabriz); GTR ( General Time Reversible ); HKY (Hasegawa Kishino Yano); ITS-rDNA ( Internal Transcribed Space); km (kilometer) ; PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar); TUB (Tubulin).

Phaeosphaeriaceae is a species-rich family in the order Pleosporales, encompassing species with diverse lifestyles viz., endophytic, epiphytic, lichenicolous, phytopathogenic, saprobic and even human pathogenic. In a survey on biodiversity of fungal species associated with leaf spot diseases of herbaceous plants in Iran, a coelomycetous fungus was recovered from symptomatic leaves of Fallopia convolvulus. Morphologically, the fungal isolates resembled species in the genus Parastagonospora. Although the phylogenetic analysis based on combined LSU and ITS sequence data placed these isolates within the family Phaeosphaeriaceae, they clustered distinct from presently known genera in the family. The monotypic genus Parastagonosporella (Phaeosphaeriaceae) is therefore introduced, with Parastagonosporella fallopiae as type species. A detailed description is provided, with notes discussing allied genera in the family.

Chemical analysis of extracts from cultures of the plant pathogenic fungus Cytospora sp. strain CCTU A309 collected in Iran led to the isolation of two previously unreported heptanedioic acid derivatives namely (2R,3S) 2-hydroxy-3-phenyl-4-oxoheptanedioic acid (1) and (2S,3S) 2-hydroxy-3-phenyl-4-oxoheptanedioic acid (2) as diastereomers, four previously undescribed prenylated p-terphenyl quinones 3–6 in addition to five known metabolites. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis and high-resolution mass spectrometry. For metabolites 1 and 2, the absolute configurations at C-2 were deduced from comparison of the 1H NMR difference of their (S)- and (R)-phenylglycine methyl ester derivatives while the relative configurations were tentatively assigned by a J-based analysis and confirmed by comparison of 13C chemical shifts to literature data. The isolated compounds were tested for their cytotoxic, antimicrobial (including biofilm inhibition), antiviral, and nematicidal activities. While only moderate antimicrobial effects were observed, the terphenyl quinone derivatives 3–6 and leucomelone (10) exhibited significant cytotoxicity against the mouse fibroblast L929 and cervix carcinoma KB-3-1 cell lines with IC50 values ranging from 2.4 to 26 μg/mL. Furthermore, metabolites 4–6 showed interesting antiviral activity against hepatitis C virus (HCV).

Polygonatum odoratum (Mill.) Druce (Angular Solomon's seal) is a well-known ornamental plant and herbal drug, which is used in traditional medicine. Severe leaf spots were observed in wild Angular Solomon's seal plants in a public park in Trento, Italy. A combination of morphological and molecular characteristics, including sequence data of ITS-rDNA, large subunit (LSU), beta tubulin (TUB) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) led to identification of two species, namely Phoma odoratissimi and Colletotrichum dematium s. str., isolated from these leaf spots. Pathogenicity of the isolates was confirmed on wounded leaves of Po. odoratum; indeed, both species induced leaf spot symptoms on inoculated leaves within 10 days of inoculation. This is the first report of leaf spot disease caused by Ph. odoratissimi and C. dematium s. str. on Po. odoratum, which can be considered a new host for both the species examined in this study. In addition, isolation of Ph. odoratissimi represents a new record for the mycobiota of Italy.

Strawberry anthracnose, caused by Colletotrichum nymphaeae, is mainly controlled by the application of synthetic chemical fungicides. The present study assessed the antimicrobial activity of essential oils (EOs) from dill (Anethum graveolens L.) seed against C. nymphaeae. The antifungal effects of dill seed EO on C. nymphaeae was initially evaluated in vitro and further extended as in vivo condition. The results indicate that in the contact and volatile assays, dill seed EO significantly inhibited mycelial growth of C. nymphaeae at all concentrations tested. Conidia germination was also significantly inhibited at concentrations of 250 – 1000 ppm. Disease incidence and severity of anthracnose on strawberry fruits were significantly reduced compared with infected control, from concentrations of 500 and 50 ppm, respectively. The results confirm the efficacy of dill seed EO against C. nymphaeae, which may represent an alternative to synthetic chemical fungicides to control strawberry anthracnose pre- ...

Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum spp. is one of main strawberry diseases worldwide. The disease recently arrived in Iran and become epidemic in the Kurdistan province. A combination of morphological, molecular and pathogen-host interaction approaches (referred to the consolidated species concept) were applied to isolates from symptomatic strawberry tissues collected in Iran. Multi-gene phylogenetic analysis based on ITS-rDNA, beta-tubulin (TUB2) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) identified the species as the S5 clade of Colletotrichum nymphaeae. No significant intraspecies variation was observed in terms of morphology and pathogenicity. No significant genetic variation was observed among the isolates using inter simple sequence repeat analysis (ISSR) and primer pair combination of ERIC1/BOX and ERIC2/BOX fingerprinting markers. Based on the results of this study, it can be postulated that the C. nymphaeae population in Iran established itself from a single origin due to a founder effect. More generally, molecular dating based on relaxed clocks indicates co-radiation of C. nymphaeae S5 and strawberry plants and suggests high reciprocal specificity between the host and pathogen.

Rhynchosporium commune(formerly known asRhynchosporium secalis), the causal agent of scald disease on barley, is known to spread asexually by splash dispersed conidia. However, there are multiple lines of evidence for the possibility of a clandestine sexual cycle occurrence in this species including extensive genotypic diversity, equal distribution of mating type alleles across the world and expression of mating type genes. In the current study, the potential for the occurrence of a sexual cycle amongst the Iranian population ofR. communewas assessed by analyzing distribution and frequency of the mating type alleles at both micro and macro-spatial scales. A total of 95 single-conidialR. communeisolates were obtained from different barley fields in Kurdistan province. Previously designed primers were applied in a multiplex PCR assay to study distribution and frequency of the mating type alleles within and between populations. Totally, 67 isolates were determined asMAT1-1and the remaining 28 isolates asMAT1-2throughout the sampling counties. The results obtained at a macro-spatial scale revealed that unlike Kamyaran county (bothMAT1-1andMAT1-2at an equal ratio), an unequal distribution of mating type genes was dominant amongR. communeisolates in both Mariwan and Dehgolan counties. Our findings support a predominantly asexual reproduction for Mariwan and Dehgolan counties and the possibility of sexual stage occurrence in Kamyarna county.