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The 21st century is the time of complexity. We delineate it and its importance as necessary to solve ‘wicked problems.’ Inherently transdisciplinary, trans-scale, and interconnected to living systems, the solution to Heliophysics’ identity crisis and to unlock the next generation of scientific discovery may be to embrace complexity. With the right foresight, direction, and incentive over the next ten years, Heliophysics can become a beacon for how all of society thinks about and does complexity science.

We present two case studies of FAST electrostatic analyzer measurements of both highly nonthermal ( κ≲ 2.5) and weakly nonthermal/thermal monoenergetic electron precipitation at ∼4,000 km, from which we infer the properties of the magnetospheric source distributions via comparison of experimentally determined number density‐, current density‐, and energy flux‐voltage relationships with corresponding theoretical relationships. We also discuss the properties of the two new theoretical number density‐voltage relationships that we employ. Moment uncertainties, which are calculated analytically via application of the Gershman et al. (2015, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JA020775) moment uncertainty framework, are used in Monte Carlo simulations to infer ranges of magnetospheric source population densities, temperatures, κ values, and altitudes. We identify the most likely ranges of source parameters by requiring that the range of κ values inferred from fitting experimental moment‐voltage relationships correspond to the range of κ values inferred from directly fitting observed electron distributions with two‐dimensional kappa distribution functions. Observations in the first case study, which are made over ∼78–79° invariant latitude in the Northern Hemisphere and 4.5–5.5 magnetic local time, are consistent with a magnetospheric source population density n m= 0.7–0.8 cm−3, source temperature T m≈ 70 eV, source altitude h= 6.4–7.7 R E, and κ= 2.2–2.8. Observations in the second case study, which are made over 76–79° invariant latitude in the Southern Hemisphere and ∼21 magnetic local time, are consistent with a magnetospheric source population density n m= 0.07–0.09 cm−3, source temperature T m≈ 95 eV, source altitude h≳ 6 R E, and κ= 2–6., Key Points The magnetospheric source parameters that account for observed auroral electron distributions are derived from a generalized kinetic modelThe degree of nonthermality (kappa index) in auroral primaries is required to correctly prescribe the magnetospheric source parametersWe present the first analytical kinetic model for the relationship between density and acceleration potential along auroral field lines

The role a geospace plume in influencing the efficiency of magnetopause reconnection is an open question with two contrasting theories being debated. A local‐control theory suggests that a plume decreases both local and global reconnection rates, whereas a global‐control theory argues that the global reconnection rate is controlled by the solar wind rather than local physics. Observationally, limited numbers of point measurements from spacecraft cannot reveal whether a local change affects the global reconnection. A distributed observatory is hence needed to assess the validity of the two theories. We use THEMIS and Los Alamos National Laboratory spacecraft to identify the occurrence of a geospace plume and its contact with the magnetopause. Global evolution and morphology of the plume is traced using GPS measurements. SuperDARN is then used to monitor the distribution and the strength of dayside reconnection. Two storm‐time geospace plume events are examined and show that as the plume contacts the magnetopause, the efficiency of reconnection decreases at the contact longitude. The amount of local decrease is 81% and 68% for the two events, and both values are consistent with the mass loading effect of the plume if the plume's atomic mass is ∼4 amu. Reconnection in the surrounding is enhanced, and when the solar wind driving is stable, little variation is seen in the cross polar cap potential. This study illuminates a pathway to resolve the role of cold dense plasma on solar wind‐magnetosphere coupling, and the observations suggest that plumes redistribute magnetopause reconnection activity without changing the global strength substantially., Key Points We strategically coordinate measurements made by THEMIS and Los Alamos National Laboratory spacecraft, GPS network, and SuperDARN to investigate geospace plumesPlumes decrease the local reconnection rate at the plume longitude and increase the reconnection rate in regions adjacent to the plumeWhen the solar wind is stable, the global reconnection remains unchanged in presence of plumes, supporting a global‐control theory

The LEXI and SMILE missions will provide soft X‐ray images of the Earth's magnetosheath and cusps after their anticipated launch in 2023 and 2024, respectively. The IBEX mission showed the potential of an Energetic Neutral Atom (ENA) instrument to image dayside magnetosheath and cusps, albeit over the long hours required to raster an image with a single pixel imager. Thus, it is timely to discuss the two imaging techniques and relevant science topics. We simulate soft X‐ray and low‐ENA images that might be observed by a virtual spacecraft during two interesting solar wind scenarios: a southward turning of the interplanetary magnetic field and a sudden enhancement of the solar wind dynamic pressure. We employ the OpenGGCM global magnetohydrodynamics model and a simple exospheric neutral density model for these calculations. Both the magnetosheath and the cusps generate strong soft X‐rays and ENA signals that can be used to extract the locations and motions of the bow shock and magnetopause. Magnetopause erosion corresponds closely to the enhancement of dayside reconnection rate obtained from the OpenGGCM model, indicating that images can be used to understand global‐scale magnetopause reconnection. When dayside imagers are installed with high‐ENA inner‐magnetosphere and FUV/UV aurora imagers, we can trace the solar wind energy flow from the bow shock to the magnetosphere and then to the ionosphere in a self‐standing manner without relying upon other observatories. Soft X‐ray and/or ENA imagers can also unveil the dayside exosphere density structure and its response to space weather., Key Points Soft X‐ray and Energetic Neutral Atom (ENA) imaging instruments provide an innovative way to visualize the global solar wind‐magnetosphere interactionHigh‐cadence, wide field‐of‐view soft X‐ray, and ENA images can capture the motion of the bow shock and magnetopauseThe magnetopause motion can reveal the magnetopause reconnection mode on a global scale

Past observations and modeling of Jupiter's thermosphere have, due to their limited resolution, suggested that heat generated by the aurora near the poles results in a smooth thermal gradient away from these aurorae, indicating a quiescent and diffuse flow of energy within the subauroral thermosphere. Here we discuss Very Large Telescope‐Cryogenic High‐Resolution IR Echelle Spectrometer observations that reveal a small‐scale localized cooling of ~200 K within the nonauroral thermosphere. Using Infrared Telescope Facility NSFCam images, this feature is revealed to be quasi‐stable over at least a 15 year period, fixed in magnetic latitude and longitude. The size and shape of this “Great Cold Spot” vary significantly with time, strongly suggesting that it is produced by an aurorally generated weather system: the first direct evidence of a long‐term thermospheric vortex in the solar system. We discuss the implications of this spot, comparing it with short‐term temperature and density variations at Earth., Key Points The detection of a Great Cold Spot in Jupiter's upper atmosphere, which is quasi‐stable over a 15 year periodThe Great Cold Spot is approximately fixed in magnetic latitude and longitude but changes in shape and size on moderate timescalesWe interpret this as direct evidence of the first long‐term thermospheric vortex in the solar system: an aurorally generated weather system

International audience; Soft X-rays are emitted when highly charged solar wind particles like O7+ and O8+ exchange electrons with neutral hydrogens. This process is called solar wind charge exchange (SWCX). The Earth's magnetosheath and cusps are expected to emit strong SWCX emissions due to high abundances of both solar wind particles and exospheric hydrogen atoms in these regions. The Solar wind - Magnetosphere - Ionosphere Link Explorer (SMILE) mission, selected by ESA and China with launch in 2023, will image the Earth's dayside system in soft X-rays. To support the SMILE mission, we conduct a statistical study on the near-Earth SWCX signals using the XMM-Newton astrophysics observations. XMM-Newton is a European X-ray telescope launched in 1999 and has observed cosmic X-ray sources for nearly 18 years. At times, its line-of-sight passes the dayside magnetosheath, and the telescope detects near-Earth SWCX emissions in addition to X-ray light sources like stars and galaxies, diffuse astronomical X-ray backgrounds like interstellar and intergalactic clouds, diffuse heliospheric SWCX signals, and particle backgrounds from the telescope's own glow. We introduce how to extract near-Earth SWCX signals from the XMM-Newton's raw observation data. Then, we investigate the relation of near-Earth X-ray emissions to the solar irradiance, solar wind flux, and abundances of X-ray source particles in solar wind.

Studies of Saturn's magnetosphere with the Cassini mission have established the importance of Enceladus as the dominant mass source for Saturn's magnetosphere. It is well known that the ionosphere is an important mass source at Earth during periods of intense geomagnetic activity, but lesser attention has been dedicated to study the ionospheric mass source at Saturn. In this paper we describe a case study of data from Saturn's magnetotail, when Cassini was located at ≃ 2200 h Saturn local time at 36 R S from Saturn. During several entries into the magnetotail lobe, tailward flowing cold electrons and a cold ion beam were observed directly adjacent to the plasma sheet and extending deeper into the lobe. The electrons and ions appear to be dispersed, dropping to lower energies with time. The composition of both the plasma sheet and lobe ions show very low fluxes (sometimes zero within measurement error) of water group ions. The magnetic field has a swept‐forward configuration which is atypical for this region, and the total magnetic field strength is larger than expected at this distance from the planet. Ultraviolet auroral observations show a dawn brightening, and upstream heliospheric models suggest that the magnetosphere is being compressed by a region of high solar wind ram pressure. We interpret this event as the observation of ionospheric outflow in Saturn's magnetotail. We estimate a number flux between (2.95 ± 0.43) × 109 and (1.43 ± 0.21) × 1010 cm−2 s−1, 1 or about 2 orders of magnitude larger than suggested by steady state MHD models, with a mass source between 1.4 ×102 and 1.1 ×103 kg/s. After considering several configurations for the active atmospheric regions, we consider as most probable the main auroral oval, with associated mass source between 49.7 ±13.4 and 239.8 ±64.8 kg/s for an average auroral oval, and 10 ±4 and 49 ±23 kg/s for the specific auroral oval morphology found during this event. It is not clear how much of this mass is trapped within the magnetosphere and how much is lost to the solar wind., Key Points Tailward observation of ionospheric plasma in the magnetotail lobeEvidence for simultaneous reconnection in the plasma sheetFirst observational estimate at Saturn of mass source rate from the ionosphere to the magnetotail

We report on field‐aligned current observations by the four Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS) spacecraft near the plasma sheet boundary layer (PSBL) during two major substorms on 23 June 2015. Small‐scale field‐aligned currents were found embedded in fluctuating PSBL flux tubes near the separatrix region. We resolve, for the first time, short‐lived earthward (downward) intense field‐aligned current sheets with thicknesses of a few tens of kilometers, which are well below the ion scale, on flux tubes moving equatorward/earthward during outward plasma sheet expansion. They coincide with upward field‐aligned electron beams with energies of a few hundred eV. These electrons are most likely due to acceleration associated with a reconnection jet or high‐energy ion beam‐produced disturbances. The observations highlight coupling of multiscale processes in PSBL as a consequence of magnetotail reconnection., Key Points Multipoint multiscale observations of field‐aligned currents during storm time substormsSmall‐scale intense field‐aligned currents are found embedded in PSBL flux tubes near separatrix regionField‐aligned low‐energy electron beams correlate with short‐lived localized field‐aligned currents

Observations have revealed large Poynting flux and soft electron precipitation around the cusp region, which have strong impacts on the polar ionosphere/thermosphere. Simulations also confirmed that Poynting flux and soft electron precipitation significantly change the neutral density and dynamics around the dayside polar cap boundary regions. However, no detailed study has been conducted to show if they should coincide with each other or not. Our analysis of Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellite data reveals a complex correlation between them. Poynting flux and soft particle precipitation are coincident in some cases (match cases), but a clear displacement between them can also be identified in others (nonmatch cases). In the 29 cusp crossings from F13 we investigated, the ratio between nonmatch and match cases is close to 1:4. In nonmatch cases, the displacement between the Poynting flux enhancement and soft particle precipitation enhancement can be as large as 1° in geomagnetic latitude., Key Points Correlation of Poynting flux and particle precipitationRelative location of two energy inputs in the dayside polar cap boundaryInfluence from the IMF conditions

Ganymede is a unique object: it is the biggest moon of our solar system, and the only satellite which has its own intrinsic magnetic field leading to the formation of a small magnetosphere. The magnetosphere of Ganymede being embedded in the Jovian magnetosphere, the environment of the Galilean moon presents the only known case of interaction between two magnetospheres (Kivelson et al. 1996). This peculiar interaction has been investigated by means of a 3D parallel multi-species hybrid model based on a CAM-CL algorithm (Mathews et al. 1994). This generic model has been largely used for other magnetized or unmagnetized bodies such as Mars (Modolo et al. 2005; 2006 and 2012), Titan (Modolo et al. 2007, Modolo and Chauteur 2008) or Mercury (Richer et al. 2012). IIn this formalism, ions have a kinetic description whereas electrons are considered as an inertialess fluid which ensure the neutrality of the plasma and contribute to the total current and electronic pressure. Maxwell's equations are solved to compute the temporal evolution of electromagnetic field. The hybrid simulation describes the dynamics of the magnetospheric plasma, composed of O+ and H+ ions, and Ganymede's ionospheric plasma (W+, H2+, H+). Similarly to Paty and Winglee (2004), a density profile with a scale height of 125km of the ionospheric plasma is loaded and feeded during the simulation. Charge exchange leading to H2+ and H+ are also computed. To represent Ganymede's magnetosphere a magnetic dipole is implemented at initialization with dipolar moments values taken from Kivelson et al, 2002. This dipole is progressively distorted and lead to the formal of the mini-magnetopshere. Simulation results also emphasize the presence of Alfvén wings and are in good agreement with other simulation results (Jia et al, 2008, Paty et al, 2008). Hybrid simulations are performed on a uniform cartesian grid with a spatial resolution of about 200 km. Simulations results are presented and compared to magnetometer and particle observations obtained during G1 and G2 Galileo flybys.

The Grand Unified Magnetosphere-Ionosphere Coupling Simulation, version 4, magnetohydrodynamic simulation of the interplanetary shock event on 9 November 2002 is used to determine the shock-associated disturbance propagation characteristics inside the Earth's magnetosphere. Interaction of an interplanetary fast forward shock with the magnetopause caused a shock-related disturbance inside the magnetosphere that propagated at a speed significantly higher than that in the solar wind or magnetosheath. The propagation direction of the disturbance was calculated from the Rankine-Hugoniot conditions, velocity and magnetic coplanarity, and minimum variance analysis and is shown to vary in different regions of the magnetosphere. Furthermore, the impulse disturbance wave mode changes as the plasma and field conditions change inside the magnetosphere. These results bring important new information about the propagation processes that is not directly obtainable from point measurements made by (even several) spacecraft. On the other hand, comparison of ionospheric observations from the IMAGE magnetometer chain with geosynchronous data allow us to also interpret the double step structure observed at dayside geosynchronous orbit, which is below the simulation resolution. This combination provides us with quite a complete view on shock propagation inside the magnetosphere.

International audience; Recent observations and simulations showed the importance of the upper atmosphere/ionosphere in the escape processes at Mars. The solar wind interacts with the Martian ionosphere leading to an ionospheric outflow into the Martian induced magnetosphere. One of the goals of the Heliosares project is to simulate this ionospheric outflow, by coupling a GCM-Ionospheric model, an exospheric model and a Mars-Solar wind interaction model for different solar conditions. In this presentation, we will present the 3D dynamical ionospheric core implemented in the Martian GCM model developed at LMD. This core solves the ions and electrons dynamics equations including the interaction with the neutral atmosphere and taking into account the effect of polarization electric field due to electronic pressure. The numerical approach used to solve the dynamics equations and the first results of this model will be presented as well as the future improvements.

International audience; Discrete auroral arcs regularly display small- and meso-scale distortions that can appear suddenly and move with speeds that are not related to plasma speeds in the ionosphere but rather represent properties of the acceleration processes in the magnetosphere. The temporal and spatial structure of each small-scale structure is thus evidence for its distinct dynamic role in the interaction between the hot magnetospheric and the cold, dense ionospheric plasmas. We analyzed passes of Reimei and FAST over the network of THEMIS Ground-Based Observatories (GBO) with all-sky cameras to combine small- and medium-scale auroral imaging with in-situ measurements of the precipitating particles in order to determine the properties and characteristics of auroral arcs and embedded small-scale structures. The THEMIS or Cluster spacecraft provided additional measurements of magnetospheric plasma and the GBO magnetometers allowed for the determination of ionospheric currents and their dynamic changes. The combination of in-situ and remotely determined auroral arc properties allowed for the complete characterization of a substorm breakup arc and embedded small-scale structures. We find consistency between theoretical expectations and observed values for arc and fold speeds and dimensions. The leading edge of the breakup arc with Alfvenic accelerated electrons exhibits the fastest fold speeds while the wider inverted-V arc shows less structure and internal speeds. Twin vortex shear flows observed by two of the THEMIS spacecraft are related to the poleward expansion of the breakup arc, the development of the substorm current wedge, and the appearance of a strong upward/downward current system. The scale size and motion of the small-scale structures signifies the dynamics of the magnetospheric plasma and the acceleration processes responsible for their generation.