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Targets set by the UK Office for Students require highly academically selective UK universities to enrol a greater percentage of students identified as least likely to participate in higher education. Such students are typically at a disadvantage in terms of levels of academic preparedness and economic, cultural and social capital. Drawing on eighteen interviews with first-generation students at Durham University, we identify five sites of pressure: developing a sense of belonging within the terms of an elite university culture, engagement in student social activities, financial worries, concerns about academic progress, and self-transformation. Based on these insights, we argue that support for first-generation scholars will require that universities recognise and redress elitist cultures that discourage applications from prospective first-generation scholars and prevent those who do enrol from having the best educational and all-round experience.

Social attention is fundamental to a wide range of behaviours in non-human primates. However, we know very little about the heritability of social attention in non-human primates, and the heritability of attention to social threat has not been assessed. Here, we provide data to begin to fill this gap in knowledge. We tested 67 female rhesus macaques, Macaca mulatta, on an attention bias preferential looking task in which they viewed threat-neutral face pairs. We recorded a number of looking time measures of social attention to conspecific faces, and attention to conspecific threat faces specifically. In addition, we recorded levels of vigilant scanning in the social group. We quantified heritability and maternal effects using pedigree information. Repeatabilities for social attention ranged from 11% - 25%. Repeatability for attention to threat faces was 16%, with zero repeatability for attention bias, calculated by subtracting duration of looking towards the neutral face from duration of looking towards the threat face (a common practice in the literature). Heritabilities for social attention were 8% - 14%, with maternal effects 6% - 11%. Heritability for attention to threat was 10%, with maternal effect 4%. This is the first study that we are aware of to test the heritability of attention to threat in a non-human primate. We discuss these findings in light of understanding mechanisms underlying social behaviour in primates, evolutionary pathways of social attention in humans, epidemiology of mental health issues such as anxiety, and potential for improving markers of animal emotion and wellbeing in captivity.

Behavioural variables used to quantify behavioural syndromes in wild Barbary macaques (1). In the first analysis of the data, the repeatability of each variable was examined (results in second column); in the second analysis, factor analysis revealed correlations among the repeatable behavioural variables and these behavioural syndromes were allocated a name based on existing literature and the constituent behaviours (third column). Three repeatable behavioural variables (Activity, Retreats, Body shake) loaded insufficiently on any of the three identified factors. For full definitions of the behavioural variables, refer to (1).

Three popular approaches exist for quantifying personality in animals: behavioral coding in unconstrained and experimental settings and trait assessment. Both behavioral coding in an unconstrained setting and trait assessment aim to identify an overview of personality structure by reducing the behavioral repertoire of a species into broad personality dimensions, whereas experimental assays quantify personality as reactive tendencies to particular stimuli. Criticisms of these methods include that they generate personality dimensions with low levels of cross-study or cross-species comparability (behavioral coding in unconstrained and experimental settings) or that the personality dimensions generated are not ecologically valid, that is, not reflecting naturally occurring behavior (trait assessment and experimental assays). Which method is best for comparative research is currently debated, and there is presently a paucity of personality research conducted in wild subjects. In our study, all three described methods are used to quantify personality in a wild animal subject, the Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus). Our results show that the structures generated by unconstrained behavioral coding and trait assessment were not equivalent. Personality dimensions derived from both trait assessments and experimental assays demonstrated low levels of ecological validity, with very limited correlation with behaviors observed in nonmanipulated circumstances. Our results reflect the methodological differences between these quantification methods. Based on these findings and the practical considerations of wild animal research, we suggest future comparative studies of quantification methods within similar methodological frameworks to best identify methods viable for future comparisons of personality structures in wild animals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Objectives Fruit husks are rarely uniformly hard, varying in penetrability via sulci and changes in thickness. We tested whether a hard-food specialist primate i) bites randomly on food fruit husk surfaces to access seeds, or ii) selects areas most easily penetrated by canines. We consider this would occur so as to minimize deployed mechanical force, energetic expenditure and risk of dental breakage when feeding. Methods A sulcus is the natural line of weakness where a dehiscent fruit breaks open. Using fruits dentally opened for seeds by golden-back uacaris (Cacajao ouakary) we: 1) analysed bite mark distribution on surface of four fruits types (hard-with-sulcus, soft-with-sulcus, hard-no-sulcus, soft-no-sulcus); 2) quantified the force needed to penetrate hard and soft fruits at sulci and elsewhere on fruit surface; 3) measured fruit wall thickness and correlated it with bite-mark distribution in all four categories of fruit. Results 1) Bite marks were distributed at random only on surfaces of soft fruits. For other fruits types, bite locations were concentrated at the thinnest areas of husk, either over the entire surface (non-sulcate fruits), or at sulci (sulcate fruits). 2) For hard-husked fruits, areas where uacaris concentrated their bites were significantly easier to penetrate than those where they did not. Conclusions This hard-fruit feeding specialist primate is not biting at random on the surface of diet fruits. To access seeds they are focusing on those areas requiring less force to penetrate. This may be to save energy, to minimize the risk of breaking teeth used in food processing, or a combination of both. The study shows, for the first time, the subtlety by which these powerfully-jawed animals process their diet items. Am J Phys Anthropol 160:113–125, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

During wildlife tourism, proximity or actual contact between people and animals may lead to a significant risk of anthropozoonotic disease transmission. In this paper, we use social network analysis, disease simulation modelling and data on animal health and behaviour to investigate such risks at a site in Morocco, where tourists come to see wild Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). Measures of individual macaques' network centrality-an index of the strength and distribution of their social relationships and thus potentially their ability to spread disease-did not show clear and consistent relationships with their time spent in close proximity to, or rate of interacting with, tourists. Disease simulation modelling indicated that while higher-ranked animals had a significantly greater ability to spread disease within the group, in absolute terms there was little difference in the size of outbreaks that different individuals were predicted to cause. We observed a high rate of physical contact and close proximity between humans and macaques, including during three periods when the macaques were coughing and sneezing heavily, highlighting the potential risk of disease transmission. We recommend that general disease prevention strategies, such as those aimed at reducing opportunities for contact between tourists and macaques, should be adopted.

The diet of the fossil cave bears (Ursus spelaeus group) has been debated extensively. Thought traditionally to be herbivorous, more recent studies have proposed more meat in the cave bear diet. To test this, the mandibular morphology of cave bears was analysed using 3D geometric morphometrics and compared to that of extant Ursidae. Landmarks for 3D digitisation of the mandible were chosen to reflect functional morphology relating to the temporalis and masseter muscles. Extant and extinct Pleistocene Ursidae were digitised with a MicroScribe G2. Generalised Procrustes superimposition was performed, and data were allometrically and phylogenetically corrected. Principal component analysis (PCA), two-block partial least squares analysis (2B-PLS), regression analysis and discriminant function analysis were performed. PCA and 2B-PLS differentiate between known dietary niches in extant Ursidae. The lineage of the cave bear runs parallel to that of the panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in morphospace, implying the development of morphological adaptations for eating foliage. A regression of shape onto foliage content in the diet and a discriminant function analysis also indicate that the cave bear diet consisted primarily of foliage.

Although plant-inhabiting ants are known to act as effective deterrents to a variety of vertebrate and invertebrate herbivores, this has been reported only once before for primates, a group better known for their predation of ants. In the present study, we investigated the effects that colonies of Pseudomyrmex viduus ants living in individual Macrolobium acaciifolium (Fabaceae) trees have on the rates of visitation and fruit removal by four taxa of seed-predating vertebrates: the primate Cacajao melanocephalus ouakary; macaws (Ara spp.); large parrots (Amazona spp.); and the Northern Amazonian red squirrel (Sciurus igniventris). We found that ant presence significantly reduced both rates of visitation and of fruit removal by C. m. ouakary. The same pattern of reduced fruit removal was also observed for other seed predators (parrots, macaws, and squirrels) but not for visitation rates (although this may be a result of the small sample size). This appears to be only the second-known demonstration of the repellent effect of ants on primates and, indeed, the first for squirrels and psittacine birds. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 114, 260–273.

Sociality confers many benefits to gregarious animals, but group-living does not come without associated costs. Social living can cause anxiety, which if prolonged can lead to stress. We investigate correlates of anxiety and stress among wild adult male olive baboons (Papio hamadryas anubis) in Gashaka-Gumti National Park, Nigeria, and present the first examination of these correlates for male baboons living in forested environments. We used rates of self-directed behaviours (SDB) to quantify anxiety, and faecal glucocorticoid (FGC) concentrations to quantify physiological stress. We first examined the relationship between SDB rates and FGC concentrations, and then examined each measure in relation to a range of variables previously linked to anxiety or stress. We found that SDB rates and FGC concentrations were not correlated with each other, nor were they related to any measure of grooming or receiving aggression. SDB rates were negatively correlated with time spent with an adult female as nearest neighbour, but were unrelated to time with another adult male as closest conspecific. FGC concentrations were unrelated to time with adult nearest neighbours of either sex. Our results add to the growing body of literature examining the psychological and physiological costs of social living among wild primates.Key words: self-directed behaviour, glucocorticoids, aggression, grooming, proximity.

Investigating causes and consequences of variation in hormonal expression is a key focus in behavioral ecology. Many studies have explored patterns of secretion of the androgen testosterone in male vertebrates, using the challenge hypothesis (Wingfield, Hegner, Dufty, & Ball, 1990; The American Naturalist, 136(6), 829–846) as a theoretical framework. Rather than the classic association of testosterone with male sexual behavior, this hypothesis predicts that high levels of testosterone are associated with male–male reproductive competition but also inhibit paternal care. The hypothesis was originally developed for birds, and subsequently tested in other vertebrate taxa, including primates. Such studies have explored the link between testosterone and reproductive aggression as well as other measures of mating competition, or between testosterone and aspects of male behavior related to the presence of infants. Very few studies have simultaneously investigated the links between testosterone and male aggression, other aspects of mating competition and infant‐related behavior. We tested predictions derived from the challenge hypothesis in wild male Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus), a species with marked breeding seasonality and high levels of male‐infant affiliation, providing a powerful test of this theoretical framework. Over 11 months, 251 hr of behavioral observations and 296 fecal samples were collected from seven adult males in the Middle Atlas Mountains, Morocco. Fecal androgen levels rose before the onset of the mating season, during a period of rank instability, and were positively related to group mating activity across the mating season. Androgen levels were unrelated to rates of male–male aggression in any period, but higher ranked males had higher levels in both the mating season and in the period of rank instability. Lower androgen levels were associated with increased rates of male‐infant grooming during the mating and unstable periods. Our results generally support the challenge hypothesis and highlight the importance of considering individual species’ behavioral ecology when testing this framework.

Spatial position within a group affects the value of group-living benefits such as reduced predation risk and improved foraging. The threat of predation, poor nutrition or increased competition from conspecifics can all cause stress. In many species, central positions are known to be more beneficial than peripheral positions in terms of reduced predation, vigilance and foraging. In this study, we examine whether spatial position within a group is associated with stress and anxiety in a troop of olive baboons (Papio anubis). We predicted that the benefits of occupying central positions would be reflected by a reduction in stress and anxiety for animals who spent the most time in the centre of the group. The study subjects appeared to compete actively for the centre of the group. Physiological stress measures (faecal glucocorticoid concentrations) were positively correlated with time spent in central positions. Time spent in central positions was positively correlated with proximity but negatively correlated with vigilance behaviours (alarm barks). Vigilance rates were positively correlated with measures of anxiety (self-scratch frequency). It is suggested that individuals experience chronic stress due to proximity to conspecifics in central positions, whilst perceived predation risk causes anxiety, with perceived predation risk experienced more by individuals on the periphery.

The diet of the fossil bear Ursus spelaeus has been debated extensively. U. spelaeus is thought to have been herbivorous, but the exact composition of its diet remains unclear. To test this, the cranial morphology of U. spelaeus was analysed using 3D geometric morphometrics and compared to that of extant Ursidae. An approach including the Ursus species with a varied diet (brown, and American and Asiatic black bears) allows for a more precise focus on food items that are directly relevant to the question of the diet of U. spelaeus. Landmarks for 3D digitisation of the cranium were chosen to reflect functional morphology relating to the attachment of the musculus temporalis and m. masseter and general shape of the cranium. Extant Ursidae and the extinct U. spelaeus were digitised with a Microscribe G2. Generalised Procrustes superimposition was performed on the coordinates and allometry corrected for using pooled regression analysis. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was conducted and interpreted with respect to diet. PCA differentiates between genera in Ursidae and known dietary composition in extant Ursus on principal components 1 and 2. The position of U. spelaeus in morphospace suggests more foliage intake, relative to the extant brown bear Ursus arctos. These results suggest that the diet of U. spelaeus likely consisted mostly of foliage. Two cave bear specimens from Moravský Kras and Merkensteinhohle are separate from the others on PC2; this may be due to dietary differentiation, but the exact interpretation remains elusive, because precise geographical and temporal data are missing for the specimen from Moravský Kras.