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In this study, we employ pooled data from four rounds of Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS) to examine whether, and to what extent, does the incidence of early marriage shape the married women’s perspectives on gender preference associated with reproduction. We employ a number of econometric techniques (Probit, OLS, Cox Hazard Model, IV Probit and treatment effects) and a large set of model specifications, and find significant evidence supporting the role of early marriage in perpetuating disproportionate preference for boys. Women who married before turning 18 not only state a greater desire for boys but are also less likely to stop reproduction as long as they do not have a boy. Early-age marriage is associated with 7.7–12.5 per cent higher incidence of fertility discontinuation among women without a son. This son-preferring behaviour is stronger at higher birth order and also reflects in differential spacing patterns. Women’s education appears to be the strongest channel through which these effects are mediated. The divergence between early- and late-marrying women appears to have sharpened over time. The findings of this study underscore the role played by early marriage in altering the gender-specific attitudes prevalent in the society, and highlight existing gender inequality traps.

In this study, we use comprehensive French consumer data from the Nielsen ScanTrack retailer panel to analyse the progression of purchasing trends of French households during the coronavirus outbreak. Our results are threefold: First, we observe three temporal phases, namely the normal (pre-Covid-19) period, the anticipation period, and the lockdown period. During the three weeks of anticipation (24 February – 15 March), sales of basic and cleaning products increased by 17%. The first week of the preventive lockdown saw panic buying with sales jumping by 30%, followed by a more subdued growth during the subsequent weeks of the lockdown. We found these time trends to be similar to those observed in Italy and Spain. Second, sales of the hypermarkets fell by 6% during the lockdown, while those of supermarkets and convenience stores rose by 13% and 28% respectively. Online sales through drive stores (80%) and home delivery (93%) showed the highest growth. Covid-19 appears to have accentuated the joint evolution of two major phenomena: strong development of E-commerce, and the desire of the households to visit small shops close to their homes. Third, in terms of product categories, we observe an increase in basic, easy-to-store food products, an increasing consumption of fresh, local & organic products, a significant increase in the purchase of basic hygiene products, and a decline in the purchase of cosmetics. In the latter case, Covid-19 seems to have accentuated a fundamental trend in household purchases in France: "eat local".

Khat consumption has become a widespread habit with immense socioeconomic and cultural significance in Djibouti. As a cash crop, its production provides an important source of employment and income. Yet, its widespread consumption is of grave concern to policymakers. While the poor health implications of Khat use are well established, its impact particularly on the labor market remains relatively unknown. The present study, therefore, seeks to investigate the relationship between khat consumption and work performance using data comprising, 737 chewers and non-chewers based in six major urban centers of Djibouti. Using an instrumental variable identification strategy, and several econometric techniques, we find a negative and statistically significant relationship between the habitual use of Khat and work performance. The result is robust across all specification, econometric techniques, and even after accounting for the differences across income groups and educational levels. Our findings underscore the need for community sensitization on the negative labor market implications of khat use.

Agriculture is the main source of income, food and employment for a majority of the population in Mauritania. Due to the high variability of rainfall and the decline in irrigated land, many people living in rural Mauritania continue to face economic hardship, pushing more and more agricultural workers into non-agricultural activities. This study examines the effect of non-agricultural worker participation on poverty reduction in rural Mauritania. We used data from the 2014 EPCV survey and applied empirical techniques of probit, propensity score matching (PSM) and inverse probability weighting (IPW) to control potential selection bias. We tested the relationship with off-farm labour activity in terms of incidence as well as intensity and severity of poverty. The results show that the probability of being poor is 5.9% lower among households that have at least one member participating in non-farm activities compared to those only associated with the agriculture sector. Participation in non-farm activities indicates a reduction in the intensity and severity of poverty by 3.6% and 1.9%, respectively. These results are robust to the variable definitions and econometric methods used. We found that surplus-labour released by the agriculture sector is absorbed in the non-farm economy. Income generation through diversification into non-farm activities seems to be an effective way to reduce poverty in rural areas.; L'agriculture est la principale source de revenus, de nourriture et d'emploi pour une majorité de la population de Mauritanie. En raison de la grande variabilité des précipitations et de la diminution des terres irriguées, de nombreuses personnes vivant en Mauritanie rurale continuent à être confrontées à des difficultés économiques, poussant de plus en plus de travailleurs agricoles vers des activités non agricoles. Cette étude examine l’effet de la participation des travailleurs non agricoles sur la réduction de la pauvreté en Mauritanie rurale. Nous utilisons les données de l'enquête EPCV de 2014 et appliquons les techniques empiriques de probit, d'appariement des scores de propension (PSM) et de pondération inverse des probabilités (IPW) pour contrôler le biais de sélection potentiel. Nous vérifions la relation avec l’activité de travail non agricole en termes d’incidence ainsi qu’en termes d’intensité et de gravité de la pauvreté. Les résultats montrent que la probabilité d'être pauvre est inférieure de 5,9 % parmi les ménages dont au moins un membre participe à des activités non agricoles par rapport à ceux dont tout les membres sont uniquement associés au secteur agricole. La participation à des activités non agricoles indique une réduction de l'intensité et de la gravité de la pauvreté de 3,6 % et 1,9 %, respectivement. Ces résultats sont robustes à utilisation des définitions des variables et des méthodes économétriques employées. Ces résultats indiquent que le surplus de travail libéré par le secteur agricole est absorbé dans l'économie non agricole. La génération de revenus par la diversification dans des activités non agricoles semble être un moyen efficace de réduire la pauvreté dans les zones rurales.

An aspect of the Covid-19 pandemic that merits attention is its effects on marriage and childbirth. Although the direct fertility effects of people getting the virus may be minor, the impact of delayed marriages due to the first preventive lockdown, such as that imposed in Pakistan from March 14 to May 8 2020, and the closure of marriage halls that lasted till September 14 may be non-negligible. These demographic consequences are of particular import to developing countries such as Pakistan where birth rates remain high, marriage is nearly universal, and almost all child-bearing takes place within marriage. Based on historic marriage patterns, we estimate that the delay in nuptiality during the first wave of coronavirus outbreak may affect about half of the marriages that were to take place during the year. In Pakistan, childbearing begins soon after marriage, and about 37% of Pakistani married women give birth to their first child within twelve months of marriage. A sizeable number out of these around 400,000 annual births that occur within twelve months of the marriage may consequently be delayed. Postponement of marriages due to the accompanying difficult economic situation and employment precariousness should accentuate this fertility effect. The net fertility impact of the Covid-19 outbreak would ultimately depend not only on the delay in marriages but also on the reproductive behavior of existing couples. Un aspect de la pandémie de Covid-19 qui mérite une attention particulière concerne ses effets sur le mariage et la naissance des enfants. Les conséquences démographiques sont particulièrement importantes pour les pays en développement tels que le Pakistan. Dans ce pays, le taux de natalité est élevé, le mariage est presque universel et la procréation se fait exclusivement dans le cadre du mariage. Bien que les effets directs du virus sur la fertilité des personnes infectées puissent être moins importants, l'impact des mariages retardés en raison des mesures de confinement tecomme celles qui avaient cours au Pakistan du 14 mars au 8 mai 2020, et de la fermeture des salles de mariage qui a duré jusqu'au 14 septembre peut être sérieux. Sur la base des modèles de mariage historiques, nous estimons que le retard de la nuptialité pendant la première vague de la pandémie de coronavirus pourrait affecter environ la moitié des mariages qui devaient avoir lieu pendant l'année. Au Pakistan, la réproduction commence peu après le mariage et environ 37 % des femmes mariées pakistanaises donnent naissance à leur premier enfant dans les douze mois suivant leur mariage. Un nombre non négligeable des 400 000 naissances annuelles qui surviennent dans les douze mois suivant le mariage pourrait donc être retardé. Le report des mariages en raison d'une situation économique difficile et de la précarité de l'emploi devrait accentuer cet effet sur la fécondité. En fin, l'impact net de l'épidémie de Covid-19 sur la fécondité dépendrait en fin de compte non seulement du report des mariages, mais aussi du comportement des couples existants en matière de reproduction.

Using data from two representative Demographic and Health Surveys, we examine the change in son preference over the past three decades and its effects on Pakistani women's fertility. We analyse a number of indicators and employ different empirical methods to come up with strong and persistent evidence for both the revealed and stated preference for sons. This disproportionate preference for boys is visible in increasing desired sex ratio and worsening sex ratio at last birth. Reliance over differential birth-stopping has significantly increased over time as couples are more likely to stop childbearing once the desired number of boys is achieved.

The extent to which farm households can successfully employ coping strategies to smooth their consumption in the face of droughts depends crucially on the intensity of the climatic shocks. In this study, we analyse geo-coded climate data matched with household data from the two rounds of Mauritania’s Permanent Survey on Living Conditions of Households (EPCV) to compare the impact of the 2008 and 2014 droughts on rural households’ welfare and the adaptation strategies that they subsequently employed. The 2008 and 2014 droughts differ sharply in intensity. The 2008 drought was localized with about 45% rural households reporting loss of livestock. In contrast, the 2014 drought was the worst in a decade and affected nearly all parts of the country. We generate a number of indicators of drought intensity in Mauritania and examine their impact on per capita consumption, livestock assets and poverty incidence among Mauritanian households. We find that households living in departments where the 2014 drought was at least one standard deviation more intense relative to the department’s long-term precipitation average have an 8.2% lower per capita consumption and 5.2% higher likelihood of falling below the national poverty line compared to households which faced less-intense drought. Importantly, we observe no such welfare losses during the 2008 drought. Change in household asset portfolio sheds light on these findings: Household wealth fell during both periods of drought, implying that farm households attempted to maintain consumption by liquidating assets, especially livestock. However, ownership of small ruminants (goats and sheep) grew, suggesting a greater reliance on more drought-resistant livestock species. The sale of livestock and raising of greater numbers of small ruminants helped maintain consumption levels during the 2008 drought but did not entirely compensate for the losses or could prevent households from reducing consumption during the 2014 drought.; La capacité des ménages agricoles à utiliser avec succès des stratégies d'adaptation pour lisser leur consommation face aux sécheresses dépend fondamentalement de l'intensité des chocs climatiques. Dans cette étude, nous analysons les données climatiques géocodées couplées aux données des ménages issus des deux cycles de l'Enquête Permanente sur les Conditions de Vie des Ménages (EPCV) de Mauritanie afin de comparer l'impact des sécheresses de 2008 et 2014 sur le bien-être des ménages ruraux et les stratégies d'adaptation qu'ils ont ensuite employées. Les sécheresses de 2008 et 2014 diffèrent fortement en intensité. La sécheresse de 2008 était localisée, environ 45 % des ménages ruraux ayant déclaré avoir perdu du bétail. En revanche, la sécheresse de 2014 a été la pire de la décennie et a touché presque toutes les régions du pays. Nous générons un certain nombre d'indicateurs de l'intensité de la sécheresse en Mauritanie et examinons leur impact sur la consommation par tête, les biens d'élevage et l'incidence de la pauvreté parmi les ménages mauritaniens. Nous constatons que les ménages vivant dans les départements où la sécheresse de 2014 était au moins d'un écart-type plus intense par rapport à la moyenne des précipitations à long terme du département ont une consommation par habitant inférieure de 8,2 % et une probabilité supérieure de 5,2 % de tomber sous le seuil national de pauvreté par rapport aux ménages qui ont été confrontés à une sécheresse moins intense. Il est important de noter que nous n'avons pas observé de telles pertes de bien-être pendant la sécheresse de 2008. L'évolution du portefeuille d'actifs des ménages éclaire ces résultats : La richesse des ménages a diminué pendant les deux périodes de sécheresse, ce qui implique que les ménages agricoles ont tenté de maintenir leur consommation en liquidant leurs actifs, en particulier le bétail. Cependant, la possession de petits ruminants (chèvres et moutons) a augmenté, ce qui suggère une plus forte dépendance à l'égard d'espèces de bétail plus résistantes à la sécheresse. La vente de bétail et l'élevage d'un plus grand nombre de petits ruminants ont contribué à maintenir les niveaux de consommation pendant la sécheresse de 2008, mais n'ont pas entièrement compensé les pertes ou empêché les ménages de réduire leur consommation pendant la sécheresse de 2014.

Agriculture is the main source of income, food and employment for a majority of the population in Mauritania. Due to the high variability of rainfall and the decline in irrigated land, many people living in rural Mauritania continue to face economic hardship, pushing more and more agricultural workers into non-agricultural activities. This study examines the effect of non-agricultural worker participation on poverty reduction in rural Mauritania. We used data from the 2014 EPCV survey and applied empirical techniques of probit, propensity score matching (PSM) and inverse probability weighting (IPW) to control potential selection bias. We tested the relationship with off-farm labour activity in terms of incidence as well as intensity and severity of poverty. The results show that the probability of being poor is 5.9% lower among households that have at least one member participating in non-farm activities compared to those only associated with the agriculture sector. Participation in non-farm activities indicates a reduction in the intensity and severity of poverty by 3.6% and 1.9%, respectively. These results are robust to the variable definitions and econometric methods used. We found that surplus-labour released by the agriculture sector is absorbed in the non-farm economy. Income generation through diversification into non-farm activities seems to be an effective way to reduce poverty in rural areas.; L'agriculture est la principale source de revenus, de nourriture et d'emploi pour une majorité de la population de Mauritanie. En raison de la grande variabilité des précipitations et de la diminution des terres irriguées, de nombreuses personnes vivant en Mauritanie rurale continuent à être confrontées à des difficultés économiques, poussant de plus en plus de travailleurs agricoles vers des activités non agricoles. Cette étude examine l’effet de la participation des travailleurs non agricoles sur la réduction de la pauvreté en Mauritanie rurale. Nous utilisons les données de l'enquête EPCV de 2014 et appliquons les techniques empiriques de probit, d'appariement des scores de propension (PSM) et de pondération inverse des probabilités (IPW) pour contrôler le biais de sélection potentiel. Nous vérifions la relation avec l’activité de travail non agricole en termes d’incidence ainsi qu’en termes d’intensité et de gravité de la pauvreté. Les résultats montrent que la probabilité d'être pauvre est inférieure de 5,9 % parmi les ménages dont au moins un membre participe à des activités non agricoles par rapport à ceux dont tout les membres sont uniquement associés au secteur agricole. La participation à des activités non agricoles indique une réduction de l'intensité et de la gravité de la pauvreté de 3,6 % et 1,9 %, respectivement. Ces résultats sont robustes à utilisation des définitions des variables et des méthodes économétriques employées. Ces résultats indiquent que le surplus de travail libéré par le secteur agricole est absorbé dans l'économie non agricole. La génération de revenus par la diversification dans des activités non agricoles semble être un moyen efficace de réduire la pauvreté dans les zones rurales.

Women's empowerment is crucial to improve their political, social, economic, health and sanitary situation. This paper estimates the effect of microfinance on women's empowerment in Djibouti. Using cross-sectional data of 692 households based in Djibouti's six major centres Djibouti-ville, Arta, Ali-Sabieh, Dikhil, Obock and Tadjourah, we construct original measures of women's empowerment index covering three dimensions (economic, social and interpersonal). We examine the extent to which access to microfinance, amount of loans obtained and their duration modifies women's status at home. Employing the instrumental variables (IV) estimations and a number of econometric techniques as robustness checks, we find a significantly positive association between microcredit and women's empowerment. Households with access to loans from MFIs are respectively 35.4%, 30.9% and 10.1% more likely to be economically, socially and interpersonally empowered. The effect of access to microfinance and the number of loans is also significant. However, women who took four or more loans from microfinance institutions are 27.7%, 23.5% and 6.8% less likely to be economically, socially and interpersonally empowered. The results of the study confirm generally positive socioeconomic effects of microfinance programmes.

Child marriage is still widespread in countries across the Indian Subcontinent. The practice has important consequences for the health and well-being of the woman and the child. In this study, we examine the incidence of child marriage in Pakistan and the changes that have taken place over time in the profile of the women who marry before turning 18. We use data from all the four rounds of the representative Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS), namely 1990 − 91, 2006 − 07, 2012 − 13 and 2017 − 18. With the help of these data, we observe the evolution of the individual and household characteristics of early-marrying women over a span of three decades. We find that the practice of child marriage has become much less generalized over the past three decades. In 2017−18, 39% of married women of child-bearing age (i.e. those between the age of 15 and 49) had got married before the age of 18. Though still high, it is nonetheless lower than the 54% incidence found in 1990 − 91. The decrease is particularly significant among women from wealthy and urban households. The incidence of child marriage is increasingly concentrated among women who are older and less educated and those belonging to poor, rural households. Elimination of the harmful practice of child marriage is crucial for achieving the fifth Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) which deals with gender equality. The findings of the study highlight the close links present between child marriage, poverty and urbanization.

Remittances, the part of the migrant's income sent back to their family living in the origin country, have become a critical stepping-stone to economic development for many developing nations. A key factor that causes migrants to use informal channels is the high cost of transferring funds through formal channels. Reducing the cost of remitting is one of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals; it is also an important policy objective as it helps to bring remittances into the formal economy, enhances financial inclusion and increases the net income of receiving households. This study examines the question of whether and to what extent the reduction in the cost of remittances increases the flow of remittances to developing countries, and whether larger amounts are remitted when the cost per transaction decreases (the so-called scale effect). It uses bilateral data on remittance flows and exploits a novel dataset covering transaction costs for 30 sending and 75 receiving countries for the period 2011-2017. A gravity model of remittance flows is estimated using panel data and instrumental variable techniques to account for potential endogeneity. We find that transaction cost is a significant predictor of the volume of formal remittances. A 1 percent decrease in the cost of remitting USD 200 leads to about a 1.6 percent increase in remittances. This association remains unchanged regardless of the models used and techniques employed. In addition to this strong impact of transfer fees, migrant stock, exchange rate stability in the recipient country and financial development in both the recipient and sending countries are also found to be important factors driving remittances. The findings suggest that policies designed to increase remittances need to focus on decreasing the cost of remitting through formal channels.

International audience; This study analyses the effects of observed preference for boys on Pakistani women’s participation in household decision-making. We find a significant association between female participation in various household decisions and their preference for boys. Bearing at least one son is associated with 5 per cent, 7 per cent, and 5 per cent higher say in decisions involving healthcare, social, and consumption matters, respectively. Women’s role in financial affairs, however, does not change significantly. Female participation in decision-making grows with the number of sons but only up to third parity. The improvement in female participation remains limited and decision- or context-specific.

Does access to microfinance improve household welfare? We seek the answer to this question using data on 2,060 borrower and non-borrower households based in six major urban centers of Djibouti. We construct a composite index of multi-dimensional poverty and carry out estimations using a number of econometric techniques. Our results show that neither access to micro-credit nor its ostensibly productive use is significantly associated with poverty regardless of the duration of time since the loan was acquired. This holds both for access to, and the amount of micro-credit obtained. The results raise doubts on the effectiveness of Djibouti's microfinance programme.