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A large portion of modern olive plantings is dominated by one main cultivar (‘Arbequina’) planted at super high density (SHD, 1,500 tree ha‑1), leading to a dangerous reduction in olive biodiversity. Very few cultivars have growth and productive patterns that suit the SHD system requirements. Partial intensification and mechanization with several cultivars may represent the safest and easiest alternative. The efficient use of limited natural resources, such as water, in SHD systems, requires precise management. Continuous plant-based sensing is a promising approach to managing water, mainly tested on the cultivar ‘Arbequina’. In this study, we evaluated the sensitivity of two promising indicators of plant water status in two Sicilian olive cultivars differ in their level of drought tolerance: 1) the minimum daily output pressure (Ppmin) measured with the leaf patch clamp pressure (LPCP) probe and 2) the maximum daily relative growth rate difference (RGRrange) measured with fruit gauges. Based on the indicators trends, we defined four water status conditions and related them to specific midday stem water potential (Ψstem) thresholds. In addition, the relation between Ppmin and RGRrange highlighted a greater tendency of the more drought tolerant cultivar to maintain leaf turgor under water deficit. This was accompanied by an increase in daily variations of leaf turgor and fruit shrinkage, not observed in the less drought tolerant cultivar. These results suggest tailoring plant-based water management protocols on cultivar-specific physiological responses to water deficit.

Warmer winters without sufficient chilling due to climate change in Mediterranean regions represent a threat for deciduous fruit tree species such as sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) with high chilling requirement, since it will affect fruit tree phenology leading to dramatic yield reduction and fruit industry income loss. Quantifying chilling requirements to overcome winter dormancy is crucial for identifying suitable cultivars for a given site, for predicting the necessity and timing applications of rest-breaking chemicals and the possible consequences of climate change. The aim of the following study was to determine the chilling and heat requirements of six sweet cherry cultivars grown in a germplasm collection field located in central Italy. The cultivars analyzed in this study were: ‘Kronio’, ‘Kordia’, ‘Galuciu Precoce’, ‘Ferrovia’, ‘Sandra’ and ‘Ciliegio D’Ottobre’. Historical temperature records and blooming dates were recorded in order to estimate the chilling and heat needs of each cultivar. Temperature-based models, developed by Richardson (1974) and Richardson et al. (1982) for peach, were used to calculate the chilling and heat requirement of the cultivars under investigation; the obtained results were compared with experimental data achieved from a parallel study conducted in controlled environment. The study in controlled environment was started using 2 years old cuttings collected in the abovementioned germplasm collection field. Several cuttings (50 for each cultivar) were artificially chilled in a refrigerated chamber at 6°C. Every 100 chilling hour intervals a sample of cuttings were transferred into a growing chamber at 26°C and flower development was rated weekly. ‘Galuciu Precoce’, ‘Kronio’, ‘Kordia’ and ‘Ciliegio D’Ottobre’ resulted to be the cultivars with low chilling requirements while ‘Ferrovia’ and ‘Sandra’ showed medium-high chilling requirements. Growth chamber experiment showed that, in all cultivars, the need of Growing degree hours (GDH) to achieve bloom was inversely related with chilling units (CU) accumulation. Only the cultivar ‘Ciliegio D’Ottobre’ showed an atypical pattern which required further investigation. From our field calculations, the specific chill accumulation requirements varied among cultivars, showing a minimum chill requirement value for ‘Kronio’ (700 CU) to a high chilling requirement of ‘Ferrovia’ (1200 CU). Field estimated chilling requirement values of each cultivar confirmed the growth chamber experiment results.

The genetic variability among 181 fig (Ficus carica L.) accessions found in small farms located in Campania, Basilicata, Apulia, Calabria and Sicily was investigated analysing the polymorphism of 18 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. The SSR analysis revealed a large genetic diversity among accessions. A total of 117 alleles were detected with a mean of 6.5 locus-1. The average expected (He) and observed heterozygosity (Ho) were 0.56 and 0.66, respectively. The mean polymorphic information content (PIC) was 0.51, suggesting a significant molecular diversity among the fig accessions taken into consideration. The UPGMA cluster analysis discriminated 174 genotypes and allowed to find 8 groups of identity. The genotype ‘Bianca di agosto’ was an “outgroup”. This study showed groups of fig accessions matching with their geographic or cultivation area, but also many genotypes, especially from Campania, with uneven distribution. The research evidenced the richness of the available fig genetic resources in Southern Italy, resolved cases of synonymies and homonymies and helped to characterize fig accessions, an important preliminary work for establishing core collections.

The reduction of environmental impact and the achievement of economic advantages based on by-product recovery is the aim of applying methodologies for phenolic compounds extraction from Olive Oil Mill Wastewater. Volume reduction of Olive Oil Mill Wastewater could generate important advantages in terms of waste disposal cost abatement and, in addition, reuse in the production of foods with health properties could lead to economic benefits. Despite the fact that literature shows that several techniques have been developed, few economic approaches have been presented. This paper assesses the economic feasibility of a system based on membrane filtration and reverse osmosis processes for phenolic compound extraction, considering their subsequent reuse to enrich Extra Virgin Olive Oil during the malaxation phase. In particular, an analysis of investment profitability was presented to establish the break-even point in terms of the incremental cost of olive oil enriched in polyphenols. Results confirm the sustainability of the process, showing a reduction of the waste product greater than 90%, and feasible solutions for the incremental cost of enriched Extra Virgin Olive Oil, considering a positive Net Present Value and a Payback Time not greater than four years.

A three-year trial was carried out to evaluate the vegetative and productive performance of five peach rootstocks of varied vigor. The study was conducted in south-western Sicily using 45 V-trained trees of 'Tropic Snow' peach planted in 2005 and grafted on GF677 and four low-vigor rootstocks selected at the Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Pisa, namely IS5/8 (Polluce), IS5/19 (Castore), IS5/23, IS5/29. Trunk circumference, winter and summer pruning weight, number and mass of fruit were recorded from 2010 to 2012. All IS selections reduced trunk cross-sectional area (TCSA) and pruning weight compared to GF677 with IS5/23 inducing the highest reduction of TCSA by 2012. Yield efficiency was increased by all IS selections but IS5/29, with IS5/23 the most efficient. Trees on IS5/23 exhibited 15-25% reductions of crop load and yield, whereas only IS5/29 induced fruit size similar to GF677. Overall, all low-vigor rootstocks performed well, and in particular IS5/29 exhibited a good compromise between growth reduction and yield while maintaining good fruit size. The most dwarfing IS5/23 may represent a valid alternative to GF677 for very intensive peach plantings in dry Mediterranean areas.

In the last decade, high-density olive planting systems have been developed to facilitate less costly mechanical harvesting and pruning by using straddle harvesters. High-density orchards allow faster production since the first crop of fruit starts a few years after planting. In high-density orchards the control of tree size is essential. It is possible to control the vigour and size of the tree by selecting suitable cultivars, by choosing rootstocks capable of controlling scion vigour and, finally, by applying deficit irrigation to reduce plant vegetative growth. Knowledge of tree water requirements is needed for precise irrigation scheduling. In this study, the dwarfing capacity of two Leccino clones, Leccino Dwarf (LD) showing low vigour, and Leccino Minerva (LM) highly vigorous, was investigated under two water regimens, well-watered ( T 100 ) and water deficit ( T 50 ). We analysed growth rates, dry matter production, gas exchanges and water relations of one-year-old plants of Leccino Dwarf (LD) and Leccino Minerva (LM), grown in pots in open fields. The two genotypes showed significant differences in vigour, demonstrated by measuring the trunk diameter, shoot length and leaf area; values were significantly lower in clone LD. Stem water potential, photosynthesis and stomatal conductance were similar in both genotypes under a well-watered regime; they decreased when subjected to water deficit with values significantly lower in LM clone during the summer months, indicating physiological differences among clones and that LD adapts better to water deficit.

For a considerable period of time chestnuts were a fundamental source of food and economy for the people in the Aspromonte area. After decades in which chestnut cultivation has been neglected as a result of depopulation in mountainous zones, the production capacity in this area has reduced resulting in an erosion of the native germplasm. A survey has been carried out to improve the knowledge about the chestnut germplasm present in this area and to evaluate its qualities with the objective of preserving native genetic resources, safeguarding them from genetic erosion phenomenon and individuating local genotypes of market value which could be used to promote a re-launch of local chestnut cultivation. The research, which was carried out in 2008 on the western slopes of the Aspromonte, has led to the identification of 38 genotypes. The germplasm which was individuated has a considerable rate of variability in that it has different phenological and morphological characteristics. Overall, the 38 genotypes have a ripening period extending from the last 10 days of September until the end of October. With regard to the valuable characteristics of the nuts, the genetic material which was analysed was overall found to be of market value. Most of the genotypes have the characteristics of an episperm which can be easily removed, a seed coat which fails to penetrate the inner kernel or penetrates minimally, and a single embryo. Genotypes with these characteristics will be studied furthermore for creating new chestnut plantations in Calabria.

Summary This study, as a preliminary step toward the definition of a carbon budget model for pistachio trees (Pistacia vera L.), aimed at estimating and evaluating the dynamics of respiration of vegetative and reproductive organs of pistachio tree. Trials were performed in 2005 in a commercial orchard located in Sicily (370 m a.s.l.) on five bearing 20-year-old pistachio trees of cv. Bianca grafted onto Pistachio terebinthus L. Growth analyses and respiration measurements were done on vegetative (leaf) and reproductive (infructescence) organs during the entire growing season (April–September) at biweekly intervals. Results suggested that the respiration rates of pistachio reproductive and vegetative organs were related to their developmental stage. Both for leaf and for infructescence, the highest values were observed during the earlier stages of growth corresponding to the phases of most intense organ growth. The sensitivity of respiration activity to temperature changes, measured by Q10, showed an increase throughout the transition from immature to mature leaves, as well as during fruit development. The data collected were also used to estimate the seasonal carbon loss by respiration activity for a single leaf and a single infructescence. The amount of carbon lost by respiration was affected by short-term temperature patterns, organ developmental stage and tissue function.

The genus Pistacia is a dioecious species staminate and pistillate inflorescences born on different trees and are wind pollinated. In pistachio orchards, female and male flowering periods are often not synchronized. In fact, male trees spread their pollen before the flowers of female trees become receptive. Pollination is commonly devoted to spontaneous males of P. terebinthus. In this research authors refer to the results obtained observing the phenology of the blooming period of monoicous genotypes of P. terebinthus discovered in the Rhodope Mountains (Bulgaria). In some selected trees phenological stages have been observed in situ. The blooming date is influenced by local environmental conditions and the relative data have been correlated with the seasonal temperature time course. The male inflorescences selected had a flowering period that overlaps the female inflorescences in the third decade of April. During male and female inflorescences development of P. terebinthus trees, buds samples were collected to describe microscopic changes during sporogenesis of pistachio inflorescence.

In this study 20 accessions of loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.) that originated from Sicily and other countries were characterized phenotypically and genotyped using seven microsatellite markers. The microsatellites clearly distinguished 14 accessions; three pairs of local accessions were not differentiated, and three accessions from abroad can be considered bud sport mutations of the main Spanish cultivar ‘Algerie’. The mean alleles per locus was four, ranging from two with the marker EJ075 and five with EJ012 and EJ271; the mean Polymorphic Information Content was 0.53; the average expected and observed heterozygosities resulted 0.62 and 0.59, respectively. These values revealed a low level of genetic diversity and high relatedness among the accessions studied. The UPGMA dendrogram based on genetic distances grouped the accessions according to their geographic origin and pedigree.

Non-linear models using growing degree hours (GDH), based on the choice of base, critical and optimum temperatures, have been successfully applied to calculate thermal time required for spring bud burst in deciduous fruit trees. The flexibility of the model can fit the wide range of temperatures that occur during the peach fruit development period (FDP), which takes place from early spring to late summer. In this experiment, fruit growth was studied in relation to thermal time accumulated from bloom to fruit harvest for peach and nectarine cultivars whose fruit development period range from 70 to 150 days. Thermal time was calculated in terms of degree days (DD) (base temperature 7 °C, and critical temperature 35 °C) and GDH (base temperature 7.5 °C, optimum temperature 26 °C and critical temperature 38.5 °C). Climatic and phenological data (bloom and harvest dates) were available for a minimum of three to a maximum of nine years. GDH showed a lower coefficient of variation and a higher predictive capacity, in terms of days, than degree days for all of the cultivars tested. Taking into account the whole FDP, the accuracy of the GDH model in predicting harvest time ranged from 1 day, in the early ripening peach cultivar ‘Maycrest,’ to 4 days in late ripening peach cultivar ‘O’Henry.’ An accurate early forecast of fruit harvest time was obtained using the GDH accumulated during the first 25-52 days of FDP, depending on the cultivar. INTRODUCTION The development period of peach fruits is genetically controlled (Vileila-Morales et al., 1981) but ranges greatly with season (Blake, 1930) and environment (Weinberger, 1948; Topp and Sherman, 1989; Caruso et al., 1993). Time of ripening depends on bloom time and on the length of the fruit development period (FDP), which is regulated chiefly by the temperature range from bloom to ripening and by the cultivar response to temperature (Boonprakob et al., 1992); as a matter of fact, temperature has been used for building models to predict harvest time (Munoz et al., 1986; Boonprakob et al., 1992; Caruso et al., 1993; Motisi et al., 1992; Motisi et al., 1998). FDP has been associated to the average daily mean temperature (Munoz et al., 1986) or to mean monthly temperature (Topp and Sherman, 1989). Anyhow, prevailing temperatures during the first 2 months after full bloom vary the most and are the best correlated to the FDP, serving as the best predictor for harvest time (Lilleland, 1965; Boonprakob et al., 1992; Caruso et al., 1993). Motisi et al. (in press), re-examining FDP data by Munoz et al. (1986), showed that the coefficient of variation (c.v.) of thermal time accumulated from bloom to harvest, for five early ripening peach cultivars grown in four different environments, is much lower than the c.v. relative to the same period and expressed in term of days. As a matter of fact, thermal time requirement, during fruit growth, is cultivar dependent and its c.v. between years or environments, should be close to zero. Based on this hypothesis the Proc. 5 IS on Peach Eds. R.S. Johnson & C.H. Chrisosto Acta Hort. 592, ISHS 2002

In this study, SSR analysis was performed on a large number of putative clones of the main olive cultivars from two Italian regions, Sicily and Calabria, in order to study the genetic relatedness, and to detect any degree of genetic diversity, which can be used to unambiguously identify possible superior clones. These putative clones have been collected and observed in the last ten years, following an extensive investigation carried out in traditional olive growing areas, thanks to the reports of farmers, millers, technician, growers and nurseries. The set of microsatellite (SSR) markers used allowed the detection of the genetic diversity, resulting from somatic mutation, indicating the presence of polyclonal cultivars, or having gametic origin, indicating a seedling origin of many clones, which thus share sibling relationships. The presence of superior clones or superior genotypes is discussed.

The Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union grants subsidies for olive production. Areas of intensified olive farming will be of major importance for the increasing demand for oil production of the next decades, and countries with a high ratio of intensively and super-intensively managed olive groves will be more competitive than others, since they are able to reduce production costs. It can be estimated that about 25-40% of the Sicilian oliviculture must be defined as “marginal”. Modern olive cultivation systems, which permit the mechanization of pruning and harvest operations, are limited. Agronomists, landscape planners, policy decision-makers and other professionals have a growing need for accurate and cost-effective information on land use in general and agronomic parameters in the particular. The availability of high spatial resolution imagery has enabled researchers to propose analysis tools on agricultural parcel and tree level. In our study, we test the performance of WorldView-2 imagery relative to the detection of olive groves and the delineation of olive tree crowns, using an object-oriented approach of image classification in combined use with LIDAR data. We selected two sites, which differ in their environmental conditions and in their agronomic parameters of olive grove cultivation. The main advantage of the proposed methodology is the low necessary quantity of data input and its automatibility. However, it should be applied in other study areas to test if the good results of accuracy assessment can be confirmed. Data extracted by the proposed methodology can be used as input data for decision-making support systems for olive grove management.

Olive (Olea europaea L.) shows alternate bearing, with unreliable cropping patterns and inconsistent fruit size and quality every year. In many countries, thinning with naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) is used to minimise alternate bearing behavior in olives. However, in Italy, growers are reluctant to employ this practice and no detailed knowledge is available for specific cultivars. We evaluated the effects of spraying NAA on various dates on the productive and vegetative characteristics of the main Italian table olive cultivar'Nocellara del Belice'. Trunk cross-sectional area, fruit set, fruit drop, fruit size, pit size, yield per tree, crop density and flesh to pit ratio were analysed. The NAA treatment applied on the earliest of the dates selected increased fruit weight and flesh to pit ratio, by reducing crop density and enhancing the leaf to fruit ratio, without reducing yield. Two distinct negative relationships were found between fruit weight and crop density during "on" and "off" years, but a unique relationship between pit weight vs. crop density in both years, suggested that the pit is the strongest sink. Fruit size and quality of'Nocellara del Belice' can be enhanced by NAA application, thereby increasing economic returns in the "on" year.

The sustainability of the traditional olive-growing sector in EU countries characterised by high production costs and a low selling price for the oil was mainly determined by EU subsidies available for the sector. With the opening of the free trade area by the Barcellona Declaration of 1995 and a cut in EU subsidies in 2014, crucial changes in the sector are now needed. In order to increase the competitiveness of EU olive production, attention should be given to new high-yielding and mechanized cultivation systems. In the 1990s, Spain introduced new high-density planting systems (1,200-2,000 trees/ha) using three low-vigour and early-fruiting cultivars ( Arbequina , Arbosana and Koroneiki ). Italian olive production lies in a geographical area that stretches for about 6° in latitude (37-43° latitude N) and in the band of altitude which ranges from sea level to 400 m a.s.l. Studies on the ecophysiology of woody plants show the importance of adapting the planting system to the climate of the cultivation site, particularly for high-density groves. The evaluation of cultivars suitable for high-density systems, based on their vegetative characteristics, branching and fruiting, together with an analysis of product quality, may contribute significantly to the development and diffusion of new crop growing systems. To achieve this aim, joint research was carried out by three different research units operating in the three main olive-growing regions of Italy (Sicily, Apulia and Umbria). This paper illustrates the first results (2010 and 2011) obtained by the PRIN Project on Biological processes and environmental factors affecting the vegetative growth, fruiting and oil quality control in a high density olive (Olea europaea L.) planting system .

In this work, we assess both the morphological and genetic diversity of 68 important olive cultivars from three Southern Italian regions: Calabria, Campania and Sicily. Twenty-five phenotypic traits were evaluated and 12 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were analysed. All SSR primers were polymorphic and reliable. The total number of alleles per locus varied from 5 to 19 with an average number of 13.1 and a mean polymorphic information content (PIC) of 0.81. These results suggested high genetic diversity within these three olive germplasm collections. Morphological traits also showed significant variability amongst cultivars. Two cases of identity were found and ten statistically significant cases of putative parent/sibling were discovered by performing a SSR-based parentage simulation analysis with CERVUS. The Mantel test indicated low but significant correlations between the morphological data and SSR allelic frequency, origin and SSR allelic frequency, and origin and morphology. Structure software allowed inference of relationships between the three olive germplasm collections and allowed us to obtain the most consistent grouping and to identify putative admixed or exchanged cultivars. Cluster and multivariate analysis, based on morphological traits, revealed geographic grouping in agreement with UPGMA dendrogram and structure analysis using SSRs. Sicilian cultivars showed a more homogenous genetic makeup, probably due to geographical isolation, whilst Calabrian and Campanian cultivars seemed to have a less distinct genetic structure, with a greater degree of intermixing. A correlation between the presence of certain SSR alleles and fruit size was also found.

A six-year trial was carried out to evaluate the vegetative and productive performance of low-chill, early-ripening ‘Tropic Snow’ peach grown on five peach × almond rootstocks, different for their vigor. The study was conducted in south-western Sicily using 45 V-trained peach trees planted in 2005 and grafted on GF677, the most common rootstock in Sicily, and four low-vigor rootstocks selected at the Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Pisa, namely IS5/8 (Polluce), IS5/19 (Castore), IS5/23, and IS5/29. Trunk circumference, winter and summer pruning weight, total number and weight of fruits per tree, and major fruit quality traits were recorded starting at the 3rd leaf. After fruit harvest in the 5th leaf, irrigation was withheld during the dry summer period (July–September). All IS selections reduced trunk cross-sectional area (TCSA) and pruning weight compared to GF677, with IS5/23 reducing TCSA by 62% and Castore, Polluce and IS5/29 by 32% by the 8th leaf. Yield efficiency was inversely related to tree vigor, with IS5/23 inducing the highest increase over GF677. Trees on IS5/23 exhibited 24–28% reductions of crop load and yield, whereas only IS5/29 increased fruit size compared to GF677. Postharvest water deficit induced significant yield declines in GF677, IS5/29 and IS5/23 in the following year. Low-vigor trees on Castore, Polluce and IS5/23 were more sensitive to changes in stomatal conductance in terms of carbon fixation, performing better than trees on GF677 and IS5/29 under non-limiting water conditions. Only minor rootstock effects on fruit quality were observed, with IS5/23 reducing significantly the final grower's profit. Overall, all low-vigor rootstocks performed decently, and in particular IS5/29 exhibited a good compromise between growth reduction, yield and fruit size, whereas Castore and Polluce may represent valid alternatives to GF677 for early peach production in dry Mediterranean areas.

Hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) is a traditional nut crop in southern Europe. Germplasm exploration conducted on-farm in five countries (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Slovenia, and Greece) identified 77 landraces. The present work describes phenotypic variation in nut and husk traits and investigates genetic relationships using ten simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers among these landraces, 57 well-known references cultivars, and 19 wild accessions. Among the 77 landraces, 42 had unique fingerprints while 35 showed a SSR profile identical to a known cultivar. Among the 42 unique landraces, morphological observations revealed high phenotypic diversity, and some had characteristics appreciated by the market such as nut round and caliber. Analysis of genetic relationships and population structure allowed investigation of the origin and spread of the cultivated germplasm in southern Europe. Our results indicate the existence of three primary centers of diversity in the Mediterranean basin: northwestern Spain (Tarragona) and southern Italy (Campania) in the West and Black Sea (Turkey) in the East. Moreover, the data suggest the existence of secondary gene pools in the Iberian (Asturias) and Italian (Liguria and Latium) Peninsulas, where local varieties were recently domesticated from wild forms and/or from introduced ancient domesticated varieties.

Although the olive (Olea europaea sativa l.) is considered a xerophytic species, long periods of water stress and high temperatures during summer months can greatly affect plant physiology and productivity. In recent years, the use of plant-based water status indicators have become popular in the study of plant-water relationships and in the design of irrigation programs, particularly midday stem water potential (ψstem). The current trend in the irrigation of olive trees is in the development of Deficit Irrigation (DI) systems whereby the water is applied at a rate which is lower than evapotranspiration needs, resulting in only very small reductions in yield. Rather than working towards minimizing crop water deficits, an irrigation manager must decide on what level of deficit to allow and must recognize when that level has been reached. Traditionally, olive trees in Sicily are not watered, with the exception of those destined for the table olive industry. Considering the growth of the table olive industry in Sicily, the choice of a correct irrigation management related to the olive tree stress threshold is necessary in order to save water. In the Belice Valley, where the table olive cultivar Nocellara del Belice is cultivated, irrigation is still managed traditionally, with a high level of variability and water waste. This trial, conducted in two consecutive olive crop seasons (2010 and 2011) aimed to evaluate the effects of deficit irrigation management on tree physiology, yield and fruit quality of the table olive cultivar Nocellara del Belice.

The success of the traditional olive-growing sector in EU countries – characterised by high production costs and a low selling price for the oil – was mainly determined by EU subsidies available for the sector. With the opening of the "free trade" area and a cut in subsidies in 2014, crucial changes in the sector are now needed. In order to increase the competitiveness of EU olive production, attention should be given to new high-yielding, mechanized cultivation systems. In the 90s, Spain introduced new high-density planting systems (1,200-2,000 plants/ha) using three low-vigour and early-fruiting cultivars (‘Arbequina’, ‘Arbosana’ and ‘Koroneiki’). Italian olive production lies in a geographical area that stretches for about 6° in latitude (37°- 43° Latitude N) and in the band of altitude which ranges from sea level to 400 m a.s.l. A number of studies on the ecophysiology of woody plants show the importance of adapting the planting system to the climate of the cultivation site, particularly for high-density groves. The evaluation of cultivars suitable for high-density systems, based on their vegetative characteristics, branching and fruiting, together with an analysis of product quality, may contribute significantly to the development and diffusion of new crop growing systems. To achieve this aim, joint research was carried out by three different research units operating in the three main olive-growing regions of Italy (Sicily, Apulia and Umbria). This paper illustrates the first results (2010 and 2011) obtained by the PRIN Project on “Biological processes and environmental factors affecting the vegetative growth, fruiting and oil quality control in a super high density olive (Olea europaea L.) planting system”.

Italy is one of the main European sweet cherry producers and it has a rich germplasm, including many minor local varieties that have not been well studied or used in breeding programmes. Sweet cherry is self-incompatible, with few exceptions; its incompatibility is controlled by a multi-allelic S locus, which is gametophytically expressed. The knowledge of S-alleles and cross-incompatibility groups of sweet cherry genotypes and cultivars is important for growers and breeders. In this work we analysed 48 traditional sweet cherry varieties and cultivars, mainly from Calabria and Emilia Romagna regions, together with eight Sicilian cultivars and the standard set of reference genotypes proposed by the European Collaborative Programme for Genetic Resources (ECPGR) Prunus group (Clarke and Tobutt, 2009), using molecular markers. Two consensus primer pairs for the incompatibility (S) locus, and eight microsatellite (SSR) primers, recommended by the ECPGR, were used in multiplexed reactions to characterise the accessions. Twelve different S-alleles were detected. S3, S6 and S13 alleles were the most common. Accessions were assigned to incompatibility groups. The chosen SSRs were able to discriminate most of the accessions and to discover duplicates and synonyms. Our results are useful for efficiently design orchards and planning crosses for future breeding programmes. The usefulness of some accessions for breeding is discussed.

In this study, SSR analysis was performed on a large number of putative clones of the main olive cultivars from two Italian regions, Sicily and Calabria, in order to study the genetic relatedness, and to detect any degree of genetic diversity, which can be used to unambiguously identify possible superior clones. These putative clones have been collected and observed in the last ten years, following an extensive investigation carried out in traditional olive growing areas, thanks to the reports of farmers, millers, technician, growers and nurseries. The set of microsatellite (SSR) markers used allowed the detection of the genetic diversity, resulting from somatic mutation, indicating the presence of polyclonal cultivars, or having gametic origin, indicating a seedling origin of many clones, which thus share sibling relationships. The presence of superior clones or superior genotypes is discussed.

In Sicily, the chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) grows in limited areas of the South eastern Mt. Etna volcano and of the Northern Mountains, namely Madonie and Nebrodi. In the Island, chestnut can be considered as a neglected species, because of the modest importance recognized to it for horticultural and forestry exploitation. Recently, the Sicilian regional government founded the 'Horticultural Forestry' project to promote the cultivation of chestnut as possible fruit tree for local city farmer markets, where typical products are usually sold. The project was developed in five steps, carried out during three years by the Dipartimento di Colture Arboree of Palermo University: identification of the main growing areas; selection, during the ripening season, of the most vigorous and highly productive trees observed in each area; selection of the best genotypes, among the accessions collected, on the basis of the carpological traits, choosing the ones that presented the best fruits. The morphological characterization of husks and fruits was done referring to the UPOV descriptors list. Only 47 accessions, among hundreds of accessions observed, were chosen on the basis of the carpological traits and were studied in situ. Husk and fruit traits were recorded in the laboratory and analysed statistically, leading to a further selection of only 25 'superior' accessions. These genotypes were analysed at the molecular level using six microsatellite or SSR (Simple Sequence Repeat) primer pairs (ENICs: 4, 15, 32 and 38, CsCat: 4 and 6). SSR markers enabled the discrimination of 23 genotypes and showed low genetic distance among them. Further observations, carried out on both tree and fruit traits, led to the selection of Il 'superior' genotypes, having important carpological traits (big fruit size, absence of adherence of the seed coat to the kernel; absence of penetration of the seed coat into the embryo; mono embryonic fruit, etc.). This study could be a good start to compare autochthonous genotypes to weli know international cultivars, under the prevailing environmental conditions of the main Sicilian growing areas.

Olive (Olea europaea L.) is an ancient crop which spread from the Middle East towards the westem Mediterranean region. In addition lo its agronomical and economical importance, the olive industry has a great social and cultural interest as part of our heritage. In order to characterize and to study the genetic relationship among cultivars, five polymorphic microsatellite loci were used in this study and were generated a total of 56 polymorphic alleles with an average of 11 alleles by locus. For all genotypes, the highest number of polymorphic alleles was obtained by the locus UD0043 and GAPU 103. The polymorphism index content ranged from 0.836 for the locus ssrOeUADCA-04 and 0.919 for the locus GAPU-103. The analysis of the dendrogram and the principal coordinates analysis produced by SSR markers grouped studied cultivars into four distinct clusters by cutting the dendrogram at genetic similarity value of 0. 1. Accessions of 'Marsaline', Fouji' and 'Fokhari' are grouped in one clear cluster. 'Zarrazi' and 'Meski' varieties are grouped in separated clear class. The last group was formed by 'Picholine' and 'Chemcheli' varieties.

In this experiment carried out in Sicily (37.35N 12.58E), fruit growth was studied in relation to thermal time accumulated from bloom to fruit harvest for peach cultivars whose fruit development period ranges from 76 to 170 days. Thermal time was calculated in terms of GDH (base temperature 6.2-10 °C, optimum temperature 23.3-24.5 °C and critical temperature 33.7-39.4 °C) by the use of non-linear models. Climatic and phenological data (bloom and harvest dates) were considered for a minimum of four to a maximum of six years. Taking into account the whole FDP, the accuracy of the GDH model in predicting harvest time ranged from 0.6 day, in the early ripening peach cultivar Anita, to 6.4 days in the late ripening peach cultivar Clara. An accurate early forecast of fruit harvest time was obtained using the GDH accumulated during the first 25-35 days of fruit development period, depending on the cultivar.

In peach industry, due to the increasing cost of the land, energy and salaries, in the last thirty years have been developed horticultural strategies to increase the productivity of the orchards and to reduce the employment of hand workers. In areas in which large part of the days are brilliant, clean sky, with high levels of light intensity, and relative humidity is low, as those with a Mediterranean climate, to reach the above mentioned goal have been developed planting systems based on high tree densities and new tree shapes. In Southern Italy, technicians have been particularly active in performing new tree canopy architectures and growers showed to be very sensitive to these innovations as evidenced from the replacement of the traditional open vase with “inclined double walls” systems Y, V and Tatura trellis. These new planting systems, respect to those based on the “open vase“ allowed to obtain higher yield together with a larger amount of top quality fruits and this as consequence of the increased amount of light intercepted and more uniformly distributed within the tree. In this last decade, the increasing costs of the trellis components (iron wires and poles) to build up the trellis and the costs of the trees, due to the royalties protecting the new released cultivars, became the major limits of this super-intensive planting systems. For this reasons, despite the high efficiency of the workers in practicing the manual techniques (fruit thinning, harvest and pruning) the “inclined double walls” started to be abandoned and technicians and growers start to move to the catalan vase. This new system has been develop recently in Spain, being a new tree shape, a dwarfed vase named catalano, that complies relative high density with low cost for orchard planting and management. This training system, to control vegetative excessive growth , is based on several treatments of topping, some of them, particularly during the summer season, are performed mechanically. Preliminary observations carried out in Sibari, seem to confirm that the vasetto catalano - even managed without treatments with paclobutrazol, a growth retardant, as used in Spain, - could represent a valid planting system to produce both fruit for the fresh and for the processed (fresh cut, sliced fruits) fruits market. In greenhouse production, where precocious and high yield are the required conditions to have early return, planting systems have to be based on tree shapes that fit with high densities, as Y and V, currently the only one able to provide fruit of optimal quality for out-of-season peaches market. In California, although a certain agronomic success has been obtained by the KAC V, the “inclined double wall “systems were unsuccessful. Other shapes as “Quad V” and “Hex-V” , that are a sort of compromise between the perpendicular “V” system and the traditional open vase, have been developed in order to address some of the vigor issue inherent in the two scaffold perpendicular system as well as to reduce planting densities and orchard establishment cost. Scientist and field technicians are still searching for the molecule for fruit thinning and to build up the right machine for harvesting trees trained to open vase. Unfortunately, so far, only summer pruning mechanization has been developed. In Chile most of the information necessary to develop the important advances of fruit industry occurred in the last 25 years have been introduced or adapted from abroad. Peach orchards have been steadily intensified, predominantly using denser orchards with refined form of the open vase system, with the perpendicular V or three arm trees currently being the most common system. Generally, tree size reduction has been one of the main objective of breeders by searching for compact and brachitic vegetative habitus and for dwarfing rootstocks but no satisfactory genotypes has been selected yet and this last still remain a potential tool for high density planting systems. The researches on the use of chemical agents able to control vegetative growth were abandoned in many Countries because the environmentalist movements hardly contrasted such kind of solution. However, rational irrigation, mineral nutrition and soil management (controlled water stress, fertirrigation according to phenologic tree phase and real absorption, cover crops) could contribute to improve planting systems, controlling the vigor trees in orchard.

Si discute dell''ambiente di coltivazione dell''olivo alla luce delle esigenze ecologiche della specie con riferimento agli areali italiani di coltura. Vengono forniti dai di natura fenoclimatica.

Una costante attenzione verso l’ottimizzazione dei fattori della produzione ha determinato una rapida adozione delle innovazioni proposte dalla ricerca nel campo dei sistemi d’impianto, per la grande importanza che essi rivestono nella qualità delle produzioni e nella redditività della coltura. Riduzione dei costi di produzione e massima efficienza della manodopera gli obiettivi prioritari, talora ottenuti attraverso l''“estensivizzazione” colturale, con bassi costi d’investimento. Un confronto fra l’Italia meridionale, California e Cile.