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Molting is an evolutionarily ancient trait in which the outermost layer of an organism is replenished, usually according to a regular circannual rhythm. It is a metabolically costly process and, in vertebrates, is generally timed around other energetically demanding events such as reproduction and migration. In mammals, molting involves replacement of the fur coat—one of the most distinct innovations of the mammalian lineage. Despite the obvious importance of hair to mammalian fitness, our knowledge of hair growth cycles, circannual molting patterns, and hair structure remains largely restricted to marine and domesticated mammals, and our ability to identify explicit adaptive advantages of molting strategies in any mammal is therefore limited. In this review, we summarize what is known of these topics in wild, terrestrial mammals with a particular emphasis on marmots (Marmota spp.). Marmots are the largest extant ground squirrels and are well adapted to seasonally cold environments. Molting may be particularly relevant to fitness in marmots given the presumed importance of a healthy, insulative coat for metabolic efficiency in cold environments. Moreover, marmots hibernate for 7 to 8 months each year, meaning the annual molt and all other energetically demanding life-history events (such as parturition, lactation, fat accumulation, and dispersal) are constrained to an active period of only 4 to 5 months. Because the energetics of hibernation, fat accumulation, reproduction, and social behavior are already well studied, examining how molt is timed with respect to other important events and how it is influenced by local conditions may inform how molting is prioritized and how molting strategies evolve under specific selective pressures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, virological surveillance focused on coronaviruses in marmots in the Alpine region in 2022, captured as part of a population control reduction program in the Livigno area. Seventy-six faecal samples were randomly collected from marmots at the time of capture and release and tested for genome detection of pan-coronavirus, pan-pestivirus, canine distemper virus, and influenza A and D virus. Nine faecal samples were positive in the Pan-CoV RT-PCR, while all were negative for the other viruses. Pan-coronavirus positives were further identified using Illumina's complete genome sequencing, which showed the highest homology with Bovine Coronavirus previously detected in roe deer in the Alps. Blood samples (n.35) were collected randomly from animals at release and tested for bovine coronavirus (BCoV) antibodies using competitive ELISA and VNT. Serological analyses revealed that 8/35 sera were positive for BCoV antibodies in both serological tests. This study provides molecular and serological evidence of the presence of BCoV in an alpine marmot population due to a likely spillover event. Marmots share areas and pastures with roe deer and other wild ruminants, and environmental transmission is a concrete possibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gut microbes play a vital role in the health and disease of animals, especially in relation to pathogen infections. Chinchillas, ferrets, and marmots are commonly used as important laboratory animals for infectious disease research. Here, we studied the bacterial and fungal microbiota and discovered that chinchillas had higher alpha diversity and a higher abundance of bacteria compared to marmots and ferrets by using the metabarcoding of 16S rRNA genes and ITS2, coupled with co-occurrence network analysis. The dominant microbes varied significantly among the three animal species, particularly in the gut mycobiota. In the ferrets, the feces were dominated by yeast such as Rhodotorula and Kurtzmaniella, while in the chinchillas, we found Teunomyces and Penicillium dominating, and Acaulium, Piromyces, and Kernia in the marmots. Nevertheless, the dominant bacterial genera shared some similarities, such as Clostridium and Pseudomonas across the three animal species. However, there were significant differences observed, such as Vagococcus and Ignatzschineria in the ferrets, Acinetobacter and Bacteroides in the chinchillas, and Bacteroides and Cellvibrio in the marmots. Additionally, our differential analysis revealed significant differences in classification levels among the three different animal species, as well as variations in feeding habitats that resulted in distinct contributions from the host microbiome. Therefore, our data are valuable for monitoring and evaluating the impacts of the microbiome, as well as considering potential applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hongmei Xue,1 Jiquan Li,1 Li Ma,1 Xuxin Yang,1 Lingling Ren,1 Zhijun Zhao,1 Jianling Wang,1 Yuanbo Zhao,1 Zhongzhi Zhao,1 Xuefei Zhang,1 Zhiguo Liu,2 Zhenjun Li2 1Department of Brucellosis Prevention and Control, Qinghai Institute for Endemic Disease Prevention and Control, Xining, Qinghai, People’s Republic of China; 2National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, People’s Republic of ChinaCorrespondence: Zhiguo Liu; Zhenjun Li, Email wlcblzg@126.com; lizhenjun@icdc.cnObjective: Brucellosis is a serious public health issue in Qinghai (QH), China. Surveying the seroprevalence and isolation of B. abortus strains from marmots is key to understanding the role of wildlife in the maintenance and spread of brucellosis.Methods: In this study, a set of methods, including a serology survey, bacteriology, antibiotic susceptibility, molecular genotyping (MLST and MLVA), and genome sequencing, were employed to characterize the two B. abortus strains.Results: The seroprevalence of brucellosis in marmots was 7.0% (80/1146) by serum tube agglutination test (SAT); one Brucella strain was recovered from these positive samples, and another Brucella strain from a human. Two strains were identified as B. abortus bv. 1 and were susceptible to all eight drugs examined. The distribution patterns of the accessory genes, virulence associated genes, and resistance genes of the two strains were consistent, and there was excellent collinearity between the two strains on chromosome I, but they had significant SVs in chromosome II, including inversions and translocations. MLST genotyping identified two B. abortus strains as ST2, and MLVA-16 analysis showed that the two strains clustered with strains from northern China. WGS-SNP phylogenetic analysis showed that the strains were genetically homogeneous with strains from the northern region, implying that strains from a common lineage were spread continuously in different regions and hosts.Conclusion: Seroprevalence and molecular clues demonstrated frequent direct or indirect contact between sheep/goats, cattle, and marmots, implying that wildlife plays a vital role in the maintenance and spread of B. abortus in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau.Keywords: Brucella abortus, marmots, isolated, MLST, MLVA, WGS-SNP, QH

In this study, virological surveillance focused on coronaviruses in marmots in the Alpine region in 2022, captured as part of a population control reduction program in the Livigno area. Seventy-six faecal samples were randomly collected from marmots at the time of capture and release and tested for genome detection of pan-coronavirus, pan-pestivirus, canine distemper virus, and influenza A and D virus. Nine faecal samples were positive in the Pan-CoV RT-PCR, while all were negative for the other viruses. Pan-coronavirus positives were further identified using Illumina’s complete genome sequencing, which showed the highest homology with Bovine Coronavirus previously detected in roe deer in the Alps. Blood samples (n.35) were collected randomly from animals at release and tested for bovine coronavirus (BCoV) antibodies using competitive ELISA and VNT. Serological analyses revealed that 8/35 sera were positive for BCoV antibodies in both serological tests. This study provides molecular and serological evidence of the presence of BCoV in an alpine marmot population due to a likely spillover event. Marmots share areas and pastures with roe deer and other wild ruminants, and environmental transmission is a concrete possibility.

Hoary marmots (Marmota caligata) dig burrows in alpine meadows rich in forage as ready refuge from potential predators. Refuge burrows enable hoary marmots to engage in risk-sensitive foraging when they are away from more secure resting burrows on talus slopes. Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) commonly excavate refuge burrows while hunting marmots, substantially changing the physical characteristics of the burrow by removing earthen material. However, it is not known if marmots continue to use excavated burrows as refuge. We opportunistically inspected 22 burrows excavated by grizzly bears for use by marmots at two sites in northwestern Canada. We found marmot feces at 10 of 22 excavated burrows, indicating that marmots continued to use these burrows after they were excavated by bears. While marmots may dig several refuge burrows in alpine meadows, and bears may substantially modify them while hunting marmots, our observations indicate that some excavated burrows retain value for foraging marmots. However, the extent of their utility is unknown. We postulate several reasons why hoary marmots may use excavated burrows and suggest avenues for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current survey was conducted on occurrence and distribution of long-tailed marmot, Marmota caudata, in Badakhshan Province, situated in the northeast of Afghanistan. Marmota caudata is one of the largest rodents in the cold desert habitats, and an important prey for endangered carnivores. Line transect method was used to collect specimens in the study area. A total of 761 individuals of long-tailed marmot, were observed in this region during 2020 and 2021. The presence of marmots was recorded by direct observation and their symptoms. The results indicate all individuals were occurring in the areas between the snow line and the timberline to near livestock grazing area. The maximum number of observations was in Arghanjkhah with 56 individuals (7.3% of all observations) and the lowest was in Kashim with 5 (0.6%). The highest population density per districts was in Arghanjkhah (11.2±2.5 per Km&#178:) and the lowest was in Kashim (1±0.2 per Km&#178:). Marmots were founded in all regions of Badakhshan with more abundance in eastern part of the province. This study was the first study on this species in the region and in Afghanistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyzed epidemiologic characteristics and distribution of 1,067 human plague cases and 5,958 Yersinia pestis isolates collected from humans, host animals, and insect vectors during 1950–2019 in 4 Marmota plague foci in China. The case-fatality rate for plague in humans was 68.88%; the overall trend slowly decreased over time but fluctuated greatly. Most human cases (98.31%) and isolates (82.06%) identified from any source were from the Marmota himalayana plague focus. The tendency among human cases could be divided into 3 stages: 1950–1969, 1970–2003, and 2004–2019. The Marmota sibirica plague focus has not had identified human cases nor isolates since 1926. However, in the other 3 foci, Y. pestis continues to circulate among animal hosts; ecologic factors might affect local Y. pestis activity. Marmota plague foci are active in China, and the epidemic boundary is constantly expanding, posing a potential threat to domestic and global public health.

Mongolians have long known of the association between marmots and the plague. We examine their understanding of the marmot not only as a biological species that can harbour the plague, but also from a cosmological perspective as a chimerical being with potential punishment on hunters who have transgressed ancient taboos. To do so we deconstruct the multiple image of the chimerical marmot in legends, stories, and beliefs. Many Mongolians believe that if the marmot is over-exploited and the population decimated through excessive hunting, hunting households may be punished with infections of the plague. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Black Death, often called the largest pandemic in human history, is conventionally defined as the massive plague outbreak of 1346 to 1353 c. e. that struck the Black Sea and Mediterranean, extended into the Middle East, North Africa, and western Europe, and killed as much as half the total population of those regions. Yet genetic approaches to plague's history have established that Yersinia pestis , the causative organism of plague, suddenly diverged in Central Asia at some point before the Black Death, splitting into four new branches—a divergence geneticists have called the "Big Bang." Drawing on a "biological archive" of genetic evidence, I trace the bacterial descendants of the Big Bang proliferation, comparing that data to historical human activities in and around the area of plague's emergence. The Mongols, whose empire emerged in 1206, unwittingly moved plague through Central Eurasia in the thirteenth, not the fourteenth, century. Grain shipments that the Mongols brought with them to several sieges, including the siege of Baghdad, were the most likely mechanism of transmission. The fourteenth century plague outbreaks represent local spillover events out of the new plague reservoirs seeded by the military campaigns of the thirteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Waterborne transmission of the pathogenic protozoa Cryptosporidium parvum has emerged as an important public health concern. To develop focused strategies to minimize the risk of waterborne transmission of this parasite to humans or animals, a standardized methodology is needed for comparing environmental loading rates for different populations of vertebrate hosts for C. parvum. A reasonable approximation for an estimate of the environmental loading rate is to measure the prevalence of infection and the intensity of shedding using cross-sectional surveys of the mammalian population, and then multiplying by an estimate of fecal production. We applied this concept to a variety of livestock and wildlife species found throughout California. In general we found that regardless of age, striped skunks, coyotes, California ground squirrels, and yellow-bellied marmots were substantial sources of C. parvum oocysts. In contrast, only the young stock of beef and dairy cattle were substantial sources of oocysts; adult cattle appear to excrete only limited numbers oocysts relative to either calves or wildlife. Watershed management plans that endeavor to minimize contamination of drinking water with C. parvum need to focus on appropriate management of wildlife reservoirs of C. parvum in addition to the traditional concern of animal agriculture.

The causes and consequences of vertebrate natal dispersal have been studied extensively, yet little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved. We used RNA-seq to quantify transcriptomic gene expression in blood of wild yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventer) prior to dispersing from or remaining philopatric to their natal colony. We tested 3 predictions. First, we hypothesized dispersers and residents will differentially express genes and gene networks since dispersal is physiologically demanding. Second, we expected differentially expressed genes to be involved in metabolism, circadian processes, and immune function. Finally, in dispersing individuals, we predicted differentially expressed genes would change as a function of sampling date relative to dispersal date. We detected 150 differentially expressed genes, including genes that have critical roles in lipid metabolism and antigen defense. Gene network analysis revealed a module of 126 coexpressed genes associated with dispersal that was enriched for extracellular immune function. Of the dispersal-associated genes, 22 altered expression as a function of days until dispersal, suggesting that dispersal-associated genes do not initiate transcription on the same time scale. Our results provide novel insights into the fundamental molecular changes required for dispersal and suggest evolutionary conservation of functional pathways during this behavioral process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cumulative cost of reproduction hypothesis predicts that reproductive costs accumulate over an individual's reproductive life span. While short‐term costs have been extensively explored, the prevalence of cumulative long‐term costs and the circumstances under which such costs occur alongside or instead of short‐term costs, are far from clear. Indeed, few studies have simultaneously tested for both short‐term and cumulative long‐term reproductive costs in natural populations. Even in mammals, comparatively little is known about cumulative effects of previous reproduction, especially in species with high variation in offspring numbers, where costs could vary among successful reproductive events. Here, we quantify effects of previous short‐term and cumulative long‐term reproduction on current reproduction probability and litter size in wild female yellow‐bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventer) and test how these effects vary with age and between two contrasting environments. We provide evidence for cumulative long‐term effects: females that had both reproduced frequently and weaned large litters on average in previous years had decreased current reproduction probability. We found no evidence for short‐term reproductive costs between reproductive bouts. However, females weaned larger litters when they had weaned larger litters on average in previous years and had lower current reproduction probability when their previous reproductive success was low. Together these results suggest that, alongside persistent among‐individual variation, long‐term reproductive history affects current reproductive success. The prevalence and magnitude of cumulative reproductive costs in natural age‐structured populations and their importance in shaping environment‐specific reproductive strategies alongside short‐term reproductive costs remain little understood. We provide evidence supporting cumulative long‐term but not short‐term costs in wild female yellow‐bellied marmots and show that females weaned larger litters when they had weaned larger litters on average in previous years, but had lower current reproduction probability when their previous reproductive success was low. Together, our results suggest that, alongside persistent among‐individual variation, long‐term reproductive history affects current reproductive success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is described an alarm call of Marmota himalayana and M. baibacina from China. In the signalM. himalayana from the Northwest Plateau were not found differences from the signal marmots, this species inhabiting other parts of the range in China, India and Nepal. Signal M. baibacina inhabiting in East Tian-Shan, markedly different from the signal marmots, this species inhabiting other parts of the area in Russia and Kazakhstan. There are discussed some situational variants of the signal and signal propagation in burrows.

China is inhabited by 4 species of Marmots. The northwest of China are Marmota caudata, M. baibacina; the northeast is M. sibirica; in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau — M. himalayana. There are the deserts between areas of M. caudata, M. baibacina, M. sibirica and an area of M. himalayana. They form an insuperable ecological barrier, interfering with expansion of an area of Marmots.

The Sari-Dzhas natural mountain focus of plague with an area of 5000 sq. km is located mainly in Kyrgyzstan. This enzootic area belongs to a group of Tien-Shan mountain plague foci and crosses the boundaries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and China. After collapse of Soviet Union, this area was not investigated fully, thence we have estimated current status of hosts and vectors comparing to 1977 in the Sari-Dzhas focus. For period 1977–2014, the number of the gray marmot (Marmota baibacina) as main host of plague has decreased twice due to regular chemical suppression of focal area, but now there is a tendency for population recovery. If negative impact of human activity (hunting, livestock, and tourism) will be minimized, the population density should rise in the near future, related to high reproduction score of animals. Significant increase of number of narrow-skulled vole (Microtus gregalis) observed on focus area in 1977–2017 can effort a risk of pathogen transmission in cross-populations of marmots provided by recovery of vector number between different hosts. For whole observation period in the Sari-Dzhas focus were described 33 species of marmot fleas with dominated Oropsylla silantiewi (67% from whole amount of fleas) and Radinopsilla li ventricosa (6.5%). Deep dustation of marmot burrows by 10% dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) conducted in 1980s caused significant decrease of ectoparasite abundance: the number of specific fleas is strongly diminished, while recovery of ticks and lice number is faster. At the same time, Yersinia pestis constantly circulates in the focal area, which is comfortable for interacting of human populations and pathogen hosts. Last plague epizootic was recorded in 1983 and recent outbreaks among gray marmot and its vectors with varying intensity are registered again starting from 2012. Thus, the Sari-Dzhas natural plague focus remains active with all links of plague epizootic cycle (marmot-vector-rodent) and needs strong monitoring every year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using molecular genetic methods, we investigated the secondary contact zones of two pairs of species of ground squirrels of Mongolia. In common colonies of marmots M. sibirica and M. baibacina, we revealed a high frequency of occurrence of hybrid individuals that were viable and fertile. A hybridization between S. alaschanicus and S. pallidicauda was sporadic in nature. The hypothesis about an extensive hybrid zone in these species of ground squirrels was not confirmed. An occupation of suboptimal biotopes by individuals of different species was the main factor contributing to hybridization in both case. The complex social behavior in marmots affected on the localization and diffusion of the hybridization process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hibernation is a naturally occurring model for studying diseases such as obesity and osteoporosis. Hibernators, marmots (Marmota flaviventris) among them, are able to nearly double their body mass by increasing fat stores prior to hibernation without the negative consequences of obesity. They are also physically inactive for extended periods of time without experiencing negative effects on the skeleton. The endocannabinoid system is involved in modulating neural signaling, circannual rhythms, behavior, appetite, thermogenesis, and bone and energy metabolism. These systems are also altered to maintain homeostasis during hibernation. This study aims to better understand the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in the regulation of physiological processes during hibernation by quantifying the seasonal variation of endocannabinoids and endocannabinoid-like ligands in both active and hibernating marmots. We hypothesized that there would be significant changes in endocannabinoid concentrations at the tissue level in marmots between active and hibernating states. Concentrations were measured in brain, serum, brown adipose tissue, white adipose tissue, bone marrow, cortical bone, and trabecular bone using microflow chromatography coupled with tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry. Significant changes were found, such as a 30-fold decrease in 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) in cortical bone during hibernation. Many endocannabinoid and endocannabinoid-like ligands decreased in brown adipose tissue, white adipose tissue, and cortical bone, while several ligands increased in bone marrow. This result supports our hypothesis and suggests the possibility of a peripherally controlled shift in energy metabolism, reduction in bone metabolism, and suppression of the immune system during hibernation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans in strong social relationships are more likely to live longer because social relationshipsmay buffer stressors and thus have protective effects. However, a shortcoming of human studies is that they often rely on self-reporting of these relationships. By contrast, observational studies of non-human animals permit detailed analyses of the specific nature of social relationships. Thus, discoveries that some social animals live longer and healthier lives if they are involved in social grooming, forage together or have more affiliative associates emphasizes the potential importance of social relationships on health and longevity. Previous studies have focused on the impact of social metrics on longevity in obligately social species. However, if sociality indeed has a key role in longevity, we might expect that affiliative relationships should also influence longevity in less social species. We focused on socially flexible yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventer) and asked whether female longevity covaries with the specific nature of social relationships. We quantified social relationships with social network statistics that were based on affiliative interactions, and then estimated the correlation between longevity and sociality using bivariate models. We found a significant negative phenotypic correlation between affiliative social relationship strength and longevity; marmots with greater degree, closeness and those with a greater negative average shortest path length died at younger ages. We conclude that sociality plays an important role in longevity, but how it does so may depend on whether a species is obligately or facultatively social. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Himalayan Marmot Marmota himalayana is one of the largest rodents of cold desert habitats, found mainly between 3,500-5,200 m above the timberline. It is regarded as an ecosystem engineer and constitutes part of the diet of some globally endangered carnivores in the Trans-Himalayan region. Being one of the least studied rodents, a survey was carried out in different habitats of Leh District along the altitude gradient to assess the status and distribution of Himalayan Marmots. A total of 110 individuals of Himalayan Marmots were sighted in the surveyed stretches of Leh District with a maximum mean count of encounter of 2.71 in the Tangtse-Chushul sector. The grasslands were the most preferred habitat (41.67% activity observed), whereas, cultivation area being frequently disturbed for agricultural operation were least preferred by the marmot. Most of the population of marmot was found between 4,000-4,500 m altitude and the steep slopes (42.05%) where loose soil was available for excavation of burrows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the downward trend of Quaternary global temperatures, crown-group marmots evolved to occupy harsh, seasonal environments at high latitudes and elevations. Marmots evolved hibernation and large body size, which allowed them to cope with a long, cold season with low, stressful ambient temperatures when food was unavailable. Harsh conditions during a short active season frequently cause reproductive failure and reproductive skipping in marmots. Seasonal phenology is controlled by a circannual rhythm that directs metabolic changes and fat accumulation for hibernation and reproduction. Metabolism and water balance in marmots are adapted to the low environmental temperatures of hibernation. Thus, marmots are subject to heat stress from solar radiation and high ambient temperatures during the active season. Energy conservation characterizes metabolism in marmots throughout the annual cycle: metabolic rates are lower than predicted from body size and decline during the active season, metabolism is actively suppressed to enter torpor, and most of the time during hibernation is spent at low metabolism in deep torpor. Young typically require 2 or more of the short active seasons to reach reproductive maturity and are retained at home, which leads to sociality based on kinship. Competition within the social group is expressed primarily as reproductive suppression, which delays the age of 1st reproduction that in turn strongly affects demography. Early snowmelt due to global warming may enable marmots to colonize new habitats or increase population growth. However, climate change most likely will diminish the ability of marmots to mobilize sufficient energy resources in a drier, warmer active season, which will reduce both survivorship and reproduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stable isotope ratios of grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) guard hair collected from bears on the lower Stikine River, British Columbia (BC) were analyzed to: 1) test whether measuring δ34S values improved the precision of the salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) diet fraction estimate relative to δ15N as is conventionally done, 2) investigate whether measuring δ34S values improves the separation of diet contributions of moose (Alces alces), marmot (Marmota caligata), and mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) and, 3) examine the relationship between collection date and length of hair and stable isotope values. Variation in isotope signatures among hair samples from the same bear and year were not trivial. The addition of δ34S values to mixing models used to estimate diet fractions generated small improvement in the precision of salmon and terrestrial prey diet fractions. Although the δ34S value for salmon is precise and appears general among species and areas, sulfur ratios were strongly correlated with nitrogen ratios and therefore added little new information to the mixing model regarding the consumption of salmon. Mean δ34S values for the three terrestrial herbivores of interest were similar and imprecise, so these data also added little new information to the mixing model. The addition of sulfur data did confirm that at least some bears in this system ate marmots during summer and fall. We show that there are bears with short hair that assimilate >20% salmon in their diet and bears with longer hair that eat no salmon living within a few kilometers of one another in a coastal ecosystem. Grizzly bears are thought to re-grow hair between June and October however our analysis of sectioned hair suggested at least some hairs begin growing in July or August, not June and, that hair of wild bears may grow faster than observed in captive bears. Our hair samples may have been from the year of sampling or the previous year because samples were collected in summer when bears were growing new hair. The salmon diet fraction increased with later hair collection dates, as expected if samples were from the year of sampling because salmon began to arrive in mid-summer. Bears that ate salmon had shorter hair and δ15N and δ34S values declined with hair length, also suggesting some hair samples were grown the year of sampling. To be sure to capture an entire hair growth period, samples must be collected in late fall. Early spring samples are also likely to be from the previous year but the date when hair begins to grow appears to vary. Choosing the longest hair available should increase the chance the hair was grown during the previous year and, maximize the period for which diet is measured. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Obtaining reliable information on animal abundance in mountainous landscapes is challenging. Highly heterogeneous habitats tend to reduce detection probabilities, and the three-dimensional, rugged nature of the terrain poses severe limits to the fulfilment of a number of assumptions underlying several statistical methods. In this study, we compared the performance of 4 methods to estimate population size of Alpine marmot (Marmota marmota), a highly social semifossorial rodent widely distributed on the European Alps. Between May and August 2015, in a study area within the Stelvio National Park (Italy), we conducted 8 sessions of capture-mark-recapture, 6 sessions of mark-resight from vantage points, 8 sessions of line distance sampling along 4 transects, and 2 sessions using double-observer methods from vantage points. The minimum number of animals alive, obtained during the mark-resight surveys, was n=54 individuals. Capture-mark-recapture models estimated a population size of n=56 individuals (95% CI=45-87); similar, but more precise estimates were obtained with the mark-resight approach (Bowden's estimator: n=62, 95% CI=54-71; Poisson log-normal estimator: n=62, 95% CI=55-69). Line transect distance sampling and double-observer methods were severely biased low (line transect distance sampling: n=24 individuals, 95% CI=19-31; independent double-observer: n=24, 95% CI=22-35; dependent doubleobserver: n=15, 95% CI=15-20). Our results suggest that the probabilistic approach based on marked individuals yielded fairly robust estimates of population size. The underestimates obtained using distance sampling and double-observer methods were likely due to the violation of some underlying assumptions. While the topography of the mountainous landscape makes it difficult to randomize the distribution of line transects, the burrowing behaviour of the species is likely to violate the assumption of perfect detection on the transect; in addition, the semifossorial habits of marmots lower their detection probabilities, thus hampering the performance of these methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Juvenile hibernators have to allocate energy to both growth and fattening, to survive winter, and to avoid possible disadvantages during their first reproductive season. Being born late in the active season may have important effects on growth and fattening. This study aimed at determining potential differences in rates and maximal level of growth, and in pre-hibernation body fat mass between early and late-born juvenile garden dormice ( Eliomys quercinus), and kept in outdoor enclosures with ad libitum food and water. We first assessed mean pup mass in early and late-born litters ( n = 31) from birth to their early weaning phase, at which time body composition was determined. Then, growth and body mass of early and late-born individuals (six males and six females, for each group) were measured weekly until hibernation onset ( n = 24). We also assessed fat content in a group of juveniles during pre-hibernation fattening ( n = 16) and after their first winter hibernation ( n = 18). During the pre-weaning phase, young from early and late litters mainly grew structurally and gained mass at similar rates. After weaning, late-born juveniles grew and gained mass twice as fast as early born individuals. Body mass was positively associated with fat content during pre-hibernation fattening. Late-born females reached similar structural sizes, but had lower pre-hibernation fat reserves than early born females. Conversely, late-born males showed lower maximal size and pre-hibernation body fat content, compared with early born males. Thus, individuals born late in the season cannot fully compensate the lack of available time before the winter onset. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although climate has been shown to have a considerable influence on alpine forest dynamics, many fine-scale processes contribute to observable forest patterns. Disturbances created by burrowing mammals may provide conifer seedlings with refuge in previously inhospitable environments and may result in conifer invasion that is not directly associated with climate change. In Olympic National Park, Washington, USA, Olympic marmot ( Marmota olympus) populations have declined. Abandoned marmot burrows, which may provide ideal sites for conifer establishment, now dot the alpine landscape. Similarly, in Glacier National Park, Montana, USA, pocket gophers ( Thomomys talpoides) have disturbed large areas of alpine meadows at treeline. Field and laboratory analysis of gopher eskers and spoil mounds of abandoned marmot burrows illustrated that such sites are less compacted than soils in adjacent, undisturbed locations. Additionally, disturbed soils contained higher amounts of phosphorus and lower amounts of potassium and organic matter. Soils disturbed by gophers were cooler at the surface and warmer at depth than undisturbed soils, whereas marmot-disturbed soils were warmer at the surface and cooler at depth. Experimental seed germination of subalpine fir ( Abies lasiocarpa) was higher on mammal-disturbed soils, and this was statistically significant for marmot-disturbed soils. These findings suggest that fossorial mammal disturbances have the potential to affect conifer germination and establishment. Furthermore, this research initiates the dialogue for future research on the distinct morphological and behavioral influences of different fossorial mammals as zoogeomorphic agents and ecosystem engineers. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social factors have important effects on individuals' fitness, yet the proximate mechanisms remain virtually unknown. Oxidative stress, which results from the imbalance between the systemic effect of reactive oxygen species on molecules and an organism's capacity to restore oxidative balance, is one potential mechanism mediating such effects. Although individuals' oxidative balance seems to be affected by their social status, the effects of social environment, and particularly group size and composition, on oxidative balance have seldom been determined in wild populations. Here, we investigated the influence of group size and composition on the oxidative balance of wild dominant Alpine marmots (Marmota marmota). We simultaneously measured an index of circulating oxidative damage to lipids (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) and specific activity of the main enzymatic antioxidant defense (superoxide dismutase). Our results showed a marked decrease in both oxidative damage and antioxidant activity in individuals from larger groups, highlighting a beneficial effect of group size on individuals' oxidative balance. We discussed the possibility that these physiological benefits originate from social thermoregulation alleviating the cost of hibernation. This study extends our understanding of the proximate factors underpinning the evolution of sociality and opens up novel perspectives within the field of evolutionary ecology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Arabian oryx ( Oryx leucoryx) historically ranged across the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries until its extirpation in 1972. In 1963-1964 a captive breeding program for this species was started at the Phoenix Zoo (PHX); it ultimately consisted of 11 animals that became known as the 'World Herd'. In 1978 -1979 a wild population was established at the Shaumari Wildlife Reserve (SWR), Jordan, with eight descendants from the World Herd and three individuals from Qatar. We described the mtDNA and nuclear genetic diversity and structure of PHX and SWR. We also determined the long-term demographic and genetic viability of these populations under different reciprocal translocation scenarios. PHX displayed a greater number of mtDNA haplotypes ( n = 4) than SWR ( n = 2). Additionally, PHX and SWR presented nuclear genetic diversities of $$\bar{N}_{\text{A}}$$ = 2.88 vs. 2.75, $$\bar{H}_{\text{O}}$$ = 0.469 vs. 0.387, and $$\bar{H}_{\text{E}}$$ = 0.501 vs. 0.421, respectively. Although these populations showed no signs of inbreeding ( $$\bar{F}_{\text{IS}}$$ ≈ 0), they were highly differentiated ( $$G^{\prime\prime}_{\text{ST}}$$ = 0.580; P < 0.001). Migration between PHX and SWR ( Nm = 1, 4, and 8 individuals/generation) increased their genetic diversity in the short-term and substantially reduced the probability of extinction in PHX during 25 generations. Under such scenarios, maximum genetic diversities were achieved in the first generations before the effects of genetic drift became predominant. Although captive populations can function as sources of genetic variation for reintroduction programs, we recommend promoting mutual and continuous gene flow with wild populations to ensure the long-term survival of this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reintroductions inherently involve a small number of founders leading reintroduced populations to be prone to genetic drift and, consequently, to inbreeding depression. Assessing the origins as the genetic diversity and structure of reintroduced populations compared to native populations are thus crucial to foresee their future. Here, we aim to clarify the origins of the Alpine marmots reintroduced in the Pyrenees and to evaluate the genetic consequences of this reintroduction after almost 30 years without monitoring. We search for the origins and compare the genetic structure and the genetic variability of three reintroduced Pyrenean and eight native Alpine populations using pairwise genetic distances, Bayesian clustering method and multivariate analyses. Our results reveal that the Alpine marmots reintroduced in the Pyrenees originated both from the Northern and the Southern Alps, and that, despite these multiple origins, none of the current Pyrenean marmots are admixed. The reintroduction led to a strong genetic differentiation and to a decrease in genetic diversity. This pattern likely results from the small number of founders and the low dispersal capacities of Alpine marmots and thus, highlight the necessity to consider both genetic characteristics and natural history when reintroducing a species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Periods of physical inactivity increase bone resorption and cause bone loss and increased fracture risk. However, hibernating bears, marmots, and woodchucks maintain bone structure and strength, despite being physically inactive for prolonged periods annually. We tested the hypothesis that bone turnover rates would decrease and bone structural and mechanical properties would be preserved in hibernating marmots (Marmota flaviventris). Femurs and tibias were collected from marmots during hibernation and in the summer following hibernation. Bone remodeling was significantly altered in cortical and trabecular bone during hibernation with suppressed formation and no change in resorption, unlike the increased bone resorption that occurs during disuse in humans and other animals. Trabecular bone architecture and cortical bone geometrical and mechanical properties were not different between hibernating and active marmots, but bonemarrow adiposity was significantly greater in hibernators. Of the 506 proteins identified in marmot bone, 40 were significantly different in abundance between active and hibernating marmots. Monoaglycerol lipase, which plays an important role in fatty acid metabolism and the endocannabinoid system, was 98-fold higher in hibernating marmots compared with summer marmots and may play a role in regulating the changes in bone and fat metabolism that occur during hibernation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two species of marmots occur in India, the Himalayan Marmot Marmota himalayana and the Long-tailed Marmot or Golden Marmot Marmota caudata. Marmots constitute part of the diet of some globally endangered carnivores in the Trans-Himalaya, yet studies on marmots in India are scanty. Besides, the status of the Long-tailed Marmot is still unknown in India. Considering this, a survey was carried out in Rangdum Valley, Kargil between May and July 2011 to collect baseline information on the Long-tailed Marmot. Trails and roads were explored through walk and slow moving vehicle, respectively. The Long-tailed Marmot was found to have a density of 14.31±2.10 per sq.km. and an encounter rate of 2.86±0.42 per km. Most of the observations of Long-tailed Marmot were in hilly areas (77.7%), lower slope (48.8%) and herbaceous meadow (38.0%). The current information is expected to bring concern towards this lesser known species in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In high-altitude rangeland environments in Nepal and other Himalayan countries, grazing by domestic livestock poses a threat to local wildlife, in terms of competition for resources and other deleterious changes in behaviour. An experimental approach (before-during-after design) was used to investigate the effects of disturbance by livestock and attending herder on the behaviour of the Himalayan marmot ( Marmota himalayana)-a common burrowing animal. When disturbed by livestock and herder, marmots reduced their foraging activities and conversely increased vigilance levels. After livestock and herder had departed from a marmot colony, the marmots mostly returned to their normal behaviour; however, prolonged vigilance activity was observed. Marmots appear to have habituated to livestock and herder to some extent, but still responding to the livestock and herder by modifying their behaviour. Increased vigilance behaviour at the expense of foraging time may have potential consequences in terms of meeting energy budgets for winter hibernation. Therefore, future increases in livestock numbers could have a deleterious effect on marmots and other ground-dwelling wildlife in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sequence of small mammal associations has been studied from the Paleolithic site of Strashnaya cave (Altai Mountains, West Siberia, Russia). The total faunal composition includes 45 species of rodents, bats, insectivores, and lagomorphs. The dominant groups in each of 10 layers that included small mammal remains are rock voles, grey voles and zokors. Co-dominating groups are ground squirrel, marmots, steppe lemmings, and red-backed voles. Small mammals from the Strashnaya cave indicate that during Late Pleistocene winters in the region could have been warmer than now. They also suggest highly mosaic biotopes around the cave in Late Pleistocene that includes open steppe, desert, floodplain, and forest. Small mammals show open areas such as steppes, floodplain and meadows in the early Holocene. The modern small mammal fauna confidently indicate taiga forest environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marmots are primarily herbivores, eating a wide variety of plants that grow in alpine and montane meadows which represent their habitats. Upon emerging from hibernation in late spring, their diet consists largely of grasses, herbs, and roots. Occasional carnivorous behaviour has been confirmed in the Alpine marmot subspecies of the Tatra Mountains (Marmota marmota latirostris), Slovakia for the first time in 2014. Our experiment shows that under unfavourable conditions (prolonged snow cover and temperatures below freezing) marmots accept meat that they do not eat when plants are an available food resource. The Tatra marmots consumed provided hare carcasses and fly larvae, however, plant food is clearly preferred over animal foods when available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of global change, an increasing challenge is to understand the interaction between weather variables and life histories. Species-specific life histories should condition the way climate influences population dynamics, particularly those that are associated with environmental constraints, such as lifestyles like hibernation and sociality. However, the influence of lifestyle in the response of organisms to climate change remains poorly understood., Based on a 23-year longitudinal study on Alpine marmots, we investigated how their lifestyle, characterized by a long hibernation and a high degree of sociality, interacts with the ongoing climate change to shape temporal variation in age-specific survival., As generally reported in other hibernating species, we expected survival of Alpine marmots to be affected by the continuous lengthening of the growing season of plants more than by changes in winter conditions. We found, however, that Alpine marmots displayed lower juvenile survival over time. Colder winters associated with a thinner snow layer lowered juvenile survival, which in turn was associated with a decrease in the relative number of helpers in groups the following years, and therefore lowered the chances of over-winter survival of juveniles born in the most recent years., Our results provide evidence that constraints on life-history traits associated with hibernation and sociality caused juvenile survival to decrease over time, which might prevent Alpine marmots coping successfully with climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of social and ecological stressors on female reproductive success vary among species and, in mammals, previous reviews have identified no clear patterns. However, few studies have simultaneously examined the relation between social rank and stressors and the relationships among rank, stressors and reproductive success. We used a long-term data set to study free-living facultatively social yellow-bellied marmots, Marmota flaviventris , to isolate the relationship between female social dominance rank and faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) levels (our measure of basal stress) in adult females. In addition, we examined whether rank and FGM levels were associated with reproductive success by quantifying the probability of an individual successfully weaning a litter and, for those who did, litter size. High-ranking females had lower FGM levels and larger litters. However, females with the highest FGM levels were significantly more likely to wean a litter. Importantly, body condition (as measured by previous year's mass) was also positively associated with breeding and with weaning larger litters. Thus, although low-ranking females probably experienced more social stressors than high-ranking females and although adult females often delayed their first reproduction until they were of a sufficient mass, our results suggest that elevated baseline FGM levels failed to mediate reproductive suppression. Perhaps, in species like marmots that have only a single chance per year to reproduce, reproductive suppression should be rare. These results highlight the importance of social status, body condition and predator abundance on determining reproductive success in highly seasonal breeders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compared patterns of core body temperature (Tb) change, including inter-individual synchrony, in 2 freeliving arctic hibernators that differ in size and sociality, the Alaska marmot (Marmota broweri) and the arctic ground squirrel (Urocitellus parryii). We report overwinter Tb changes from 3 to 4 marmots from the same hibernaculum in each of 3 years and from 7 ground squirrels that hibernated at 2 nearby burrow sites in 1 year. Very close synchrony in the timing of torpor and arousal cycles in Alaska marmots indicates social hibernation and thermoregulation, while lack of synchrony in arctic ground squirrels further confirms solitary hibernation. The mean duration between the first and last marmot measured within the group to initiate an arousal was 3.7 ± 2.5 h and to recool to 30°C during torpor entrance was 5.7 ± 3.7 h. The minimum Tb recorded in marmots was 0.6°C and in ground squirrels was -2.0°C. Marmots entering torpor displayed an interrupted pattern of Tb change defined by 2 distinct rates of cooling, early and late during entry, that differed by 21-fold. Ground squirrels cooled in a continuous pattern, initially 3-fold slower than marmots during rapid cooling but 4-fold faster during slow cooling. Both species must minimize energy expenditure to survive long arctic winters; our results suggest that Alaska marmots do this through social thermoregulation, while arctic ground squirrels decrease Tb below freezing to minimize the difference between body and ambient temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In social species, the hierarchical status of an individual has important consequences for its fitness. While many studies have focused on individual condition to explain access to dominance, very few have investigated the influence of the social environment, especially during early life. Yet it is known that environmental conditions early in life may influence several traits at adulthood. Here, we examine the influence of early social environment on accession to dominance by investigating the influence of litter size and sex composition on survival and the probability of ascending to dominance later in life using a 20-year dataset from a wild population of Alpine marmots ( Marmota marmota). Although litter size had no effect on the fate of individuals, litter sex composition affected male juvenile survival and both male and female probabilities of reaching dominant status when adult. Male juveniles incur lower survival when the number of male juveniles in the litter increases, and individuals of both sexes from male-biased litters are more likely to become dominant than individuals from female-biased litters. However, the absolute number of sisters in the litter, rather than the sex ratio, seems to be an important predictor of the probability of acquiring dominant status: pups having more sisters are less likely to become dominant. Several potential mechanisms to explain these results are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Transcriptomic response associated with predator abundance differs between sexes. • The number of differentially expressed genes is higher in female marmots than males. • A small percentage of these differentially expressed genes are shared between sexes. • Most genes are expressed in a sex-specific manner in response to predator abundance. • Sex-specific variation in gene regulation is present in mammals under predation risk. Predation is a psychological stressor in prey animals. Besides direct killing and consumption by predators, the perception of predation risk indirectly influence prey population behavior, dynamics and physiology. Few studies identified the transcriptomic response associated with predator presence/abundance in natural populations and uncontrolled settings. However, to our knowledge, intersexual differences in the number of genes whose expression change in response to high predation risk have not been previously reported in wild mammals. Here, by using publicly available gene expression data in wild yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventer), we found that the number of differentially expressed genes in response to predator stress is higher in female marmots (n = 516) than males (n = 387). Only a small percentage of these differentially expressed genes (n = 36) are shared between the sexes, and that the most of the differentially expressed genes are expressed in a sex-specific manner in response to predation stress. Overall, our results provide new insight into sex-specific variation in gene expression changes in wild mammals under high predation risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Activity patterns of wildlife are often associated with the risk of predation, foraging requirements, and impacts of anthropogenic disturbance. Animals may adjust their temporal niche by shifting their activity patterns in relation to anthropogenic disturbance activities; however, few studies have recorded this response. We investigated the extent to which disturbances associated with pastoralism changed the timing of foraging and activity patterns of Himalayan marmot, a widely distributed rodent that inhabits alpine meadows in the mountains of central Asia. Using a scan-sampling observational approach, we collected data from 30 marmot sites in the Upper Mustang region of Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. We developed an index of pastoralism intensity for each site, based on the presence of livestock, herders, guard dogs, distance from pastoralist camps, and density of major tracks. Using this index, marmot time spent above-ground, and foraging distance from burrows, was compared between high and low pastoralism sites. Using a linear mixed modeling approach, there was no significant difference between areas of high and low pastoralism in either the total daily activity time or foraging distance from burrows. However, marmots adjusted their diurnal patterns of activity and the distances moved from their burrows in relation to the timing of pastoralist activities (temporal niche shift). In areas experiencing high levels of pastoralism, marmots were less active during periods of herding activity, and compensated by increasing activity when herding activity was less. By changing foraging behaviors, any increase in pastoralism may have significant consequences in terms of marmot population viability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]