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ABSTRACT: A study focusing on different field capacity levels was planned in the Weed Science Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture Faisalabad. Fresh alligatorweed was harvested from the Agronomy fields and cuttings (2 cm length) were made from it. These cuttings were placed at 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% field capacity levels in pots for 25 days. The results of the experiments revealed that at all field capacity levels, fragments of alligatorweed were able to sprout and grow. Increased moisture levels significantly increased the emergence ability and survival of the alligatorweed plants upto a certain level. Compared with the control (25% FC), emergence time of the sprouts in the maximum moisture regime (100% of FC) decreased by 40% (12.94 days vs.7.17 days). By contrast, the survival rate of the fragments decreased by 60% (5 vs. 1.75) although survival and growth rate increased at first with 50% FC and 75% FC. Maximum sprouting and growth were found at 50% field capacity. Field capacity does affect the sprouting capacity of alligatorweed fragments but it has only a little influence on growth parameters. The results suggest that alligatorweed can sustain dry conditions to a great extent and also has the ability to sprout and grow in fully submerged soils.

The natural microbes are potential contributor to build up soil nitrogen through transformation of molecular nitrogen to plant available forms. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the contribution of biofertilizer to reduce the synthetic nitrogen application without deteriorating the yield and forage quality. The supplementary nitrogen rates included 0, 40, 80 and 120 kg ha−1 and the seed inoculation was carried out with the mixture of Azospirillum + Azotobacter spp. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design with factorial arrangement. The results indicated that organic matter contents and ether extractable fat were negatively associated with both nitrogen and inoculation factors. The inoculation produced 6.58%, 9.58%, 2.51%, 16.94%, 10.26%, 17.59%, 14.02%, 33.81% and 66.18% more No. tillers, plant height, leaf to stem ratio, dry matter yield, mineral matter contents, crude fibre, crude protein, crude protein yield and total digestible crude protein yield, respectively over uninoculation. The interactive effects indicated that inoculation alone without nitrogen application produced 19.16% and 6.87% more dry matter yield and crude protein (%), respectively. The beneficiary effects of biofertilizers on growth and dry matter of oat were more pronounced at intermediate level of inorganic nitrogen which was gradually decreased at higher nitrogen levels. The CP, CPY and DCPY achieved with inoculation alone were statistically equivalent to plots fertilized with 0 and 40 kg N ha−1. It is clear that plots sown with inoculated seeds must be fertilized with 80 kg N to produce higher dry matter and economic returns. However, the highest protein contents in dry matter were recorded with highest fertilization level along with inoculation. By giving due attention to stimulatory effects of bacterial species in the present study, it is therefore, recommended to integrate the use of biofertilizers with supplemental dose of synthetic nitrogen source to sustain crop production.

ABSTRACT: The phytotoxic composition of Achyranthes aspera was identified through HPLC, and its herbicidal potential was investigated against two narrow leaf weeds viz., Phalaris minor Retz. and Avena fatua L.; and four broad leaf weeds viz. Lathyrus aphaca L., Vicia sativa L., Convolvolus arvensis L. and Asphodelus tenuifolius L. through bioassays. Weed seeds were grown in the aqueous extracts of various plant parts (roots, leaf, stem, fruit and whole plant) of A. aspera at 5% (w/v) concentration. The extracts of all plant parts caused significant reductions with differential degree in germination percentage and mean germination time. Phalaris minor, A. fatua, L. aphaca, V. sativa and A. tenuifolius completely failed to germinate whereas C. arvensis showed the lowest GP (20%) in response to 5% fruit extract of A. aspera. Inhibition of seed germination of all weeds was higher with the fruit extract than with the root, stem, leaf and whole plant extracts of A. aspera. Seed germination of all narrow leaf weeds was completely inhibited at the 5% fruit extract of A. aspera. The highest phytotoxic inhibitory effect of A. aspera fruit extract was proved to be due to the presence of gallic acid (88.4 mg kg-1), caffeic acid (519.2 mg g-1) and m-coumaric acid (51.4 mg kg-1) as assessed by their HPLC analyses. The study, therefore, showed that A. aspera exerts an inhibitory effect on germination of weeds and can be further explored as a pre- or post-emergence herbicide to provide natural alternative to chemical herbicides in the future.

ABSTRACT To test resistance status of Phalaris minor (littleseed canary grass) to fenoxaprop-P-ethyl in Pakistan, a field survey was conducted during 2014. Uncontrolled P. minor plants were selected for seed collection from wheat fields where fenoxaprop-P-ethyl was used to control P. minor. Seeds were collected from eight different locations near Fasialabad, Pakistan. Susceptible plants were also selected near Faisalabad having no history of fenoxaprop-P-ethyluse for comparison. These seeds were grown in pots for resistance confirmation using completely randomized design with factorial arrangement having four replicates. Four doses of fenoxaprop-P-ethylcontrol (0X), 46.9 (0.5X), 93.7 (1X) and 187 (2X) g a.i. ha-1 were sprayed at 3 to 4 leaf stage of P. minor. Three weeks after fenoxaprop-P-ethyl spray, percent mortality and biomass of different biotypes were recorded. Dose killing 50% plants (LD50) and resistance index (RI) were calculated on the basis of percent mortality. Results revealed that out of eight biotypes (PM-FS-1, PM-FS-2, PM-FS-3, PM-FS-4, PM-FS-5, PM-FS-6, PM-FS-7 and PM-FS-8) four biotypes (PM-FS-1, PM-FS-2, PM-FS-6 and PM-FS-7) showed resistance to fenoxaprop-P-ethyl. Percent mortality for the resistant biotypes was 51 to 71% even at 2X. Resistance index of the resistant biotypes was 2.13-6.00. Biomass reductions were also significantly lesser in resistant biotypes. Evolution of P. minor resistance to fenoxaprop-P-ethyl is first case of herbicide resistance in Pakistan. Research is needed to assess the infestation of herbicide resistant P. minor area in other locations and suggest control measures to evolve the effective management strategy to control the future spread of resistant biotypes.

ABSTRACT Use of herbicide mixtures has been advocated as most effective strategy for avoidance and management of herbicide resistant weeds. Effect of twelve selected treatments of four herbicides (clodinafop-propargil, metribuzin, pinoxaden and sulfosulfuron) two-way mixtures at different doses was investigated against fenoxaprop-p-ethyl resistant and susceptible populations of P. minor grown along the wheat plants. In repeated experiment, herbicides mixtures were applied at 3 to 4 leaf stage of P. minor under greenhouse conditions. All the herbicide mixtures were effective to control resistant as well as susceptible P. minor. Mixtures having 75% lethal dose of each mixture component provided best control against P. minor. Mixtures with 50% lethal dose of each herbicide also provided more than 80% control of P. minor. Surviving P. minor plants after exposure to herbicide mixtures showed reduced growth and seed production potential. No mixture combination produced phytotoxic effects on wheat plant up to 75% of lethal dose of each mixture component. Mixtures including clodinafop-propargil + metribuzin, pinoxaden + sulfosulfuron and pinoxaden + metribuzin at 100% dose of each mixture component produced minor phytotoxic effects on wheat plants and caused no reduction in terms of ultimate growth and grain yield. However, mixture of sulfosulfuron + clodinafop-propargil at 100% dose of each component was phytotoxic to wheat and caused significant reduction in term of growth and grain yield. So, farmers can use these mixtures even at 75% of recommended dose of mixture component to control susceptible and resistant P. minor in wheat.

ABSTRACT Hormetic effects of herbicides at ultra-low doses have been proved against range of crop species, although available data of herbicides hormesis about the weeds growth is very limited. This study investigates the promotive effect of low doses of fenoxaprop-Pethyl on growth and seed production of littleseed canarygrass and wild oat. Pot experiments were conducted twice in Wire House at Agronomic Research Area, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, during 2014-15. Seven different concentrations of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl [0, 1, 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 g a.i. ha-1] were applied as post emergence herbicide at 3-4 leaves stage of the weeds. Results revealed that increase in growth occurred within first two weeks after spraying at fenoxaprop-P-ethyl doses 1, 3 and 6 g a.i. ha-1. More growth stimulation as compared to all other treatments was observed at fenoxaprop-P-ethyl dose 6 g a.i. ha-1. This initial increase in growth sustains with time up to the maturity of both weeds and positively influences seeds production ability. Up to 28% and 17% increase in number of seeds per plants were occurred in littleseed canarygrass and wild oat, respectively. Doses above 6 g a.i. ha-1 negatively affect the weeds growth and seed production ability.

ABSTRACT: Recent increases in the development of herbicide resistance in Phalaris minor worldwide demand alternative non-chemical strategies to control this weed. A series of experiments were conducted under laboratory and greenhouse conditions to explore the herbicidal potential of four allelopathic crops, including maize, rice, sorghum and sunflower, at different concentrations of aqueous extracts (2.5% and 5%), residues (1%, 2% and 4%) and mulches (4, 8, and 12 ton ha-1) against fenoxaprop-resistant P. minor. Aqueous extracts, residues and mulches provided 86-100%, 73-100% and 16-40% control of this resistant weed biotype, respectively. The dry biomass reduction due to aqueous extracts, residues and mulches was 48-100%, 48-100% and 20-54%, respectively. Mulches also caused 17-41% reduction in the seed production potential of P. minor. Lower concentrations of allelochemicals showed hormesis (positive effect) against some emergence and growth traits of P. minor. The phytotoxic chemicals of these four crops have a strong herbicidal potential against herbicide-resistant P. minor, and can be used as an organic alternative to control herbicide resistant P. minor, thus ensuring a sustainable wheat production.

ABSTRACT: Crop row spacing adjustment and adjuvants have a significant role in decreasing herbicide cost and environmental damage by reducing herbicide application rate. A field study was conducted to assess the impact of two row spacing values and reduced herbicide rates along with adjuvant on weeds in maize in 2014 and 2015. The experiment consisted of atrazine plus mesotrione plus halosulfuran methyl (pre-mixed herbicide) at label rate (719.2 g a.i. ha-1); reduced rates of 75% (539.4 g a.i. ha-1) and 50% (359.6 g a.i. ha-1) alone and in combination with alkyl ether sulphate at 396.8 mL ha-1 as an adjuvant along with weedy check in maize sown at 60 and 75 cm row spacing. Alkyl ether sulphate increased weed control efficacy (13-35%) of the pre-mixed herbicide. Herbicide along with adjuvant provided effective weed control at 60 cm as compared to 75 cm apart sown maize. The most effective control of weeds, and increase in maize grain yield (33-45% as compared to non-treated control) and net income were obtained by the pre-mixed herbicide at 539.4 g a.i. ha-1 (75% of recommended rate) with adjuvant and pre-mixed herbicide at 719.2 g a.i. ha-1 (recommended dose) without adjuvant. The results revealed that the rate of pre-mixed herbicide can be reduced by up to 25% of the recommended field rate by the addition of alkyl ether sulphate as an adjuvant at 60 cm row spacing of maize to increase maize yield and net income.

ABSTRACT: Low fertilizer use efficiency due to inappropriate weed control practices is one of the main causes of poor wheat yield worldwide. A 2 year field experiment was conducted to study the effects of three fertilizer levels and four weed control practices on fertilizer use efficiency and nutrient uptake by wheat and its associated weeds. Fertilizer levels were F0 (zero fertilizer), F1 (75 kg ha-1 N + 50 kg ha-1 P2O5), and F2 (150 kg ha-1 N + 100 kg ha-1 P2O5) and weed control included W1 (weedy check), W2 (pendimethalin applied at 1,031 g a.i. ha-1), W3 (isoproturon + carfentrazone ethyl applied at 750 g a.i. ha-1) and W4 (manual weed control). Different weed control practices significantly reduced the NPK uptake by weeds and increased NPK uptake by wheat. Maximum uptake of NPK by wheat and minimum uptake by weeds were recorded in W4. Increasing dose of fertilizer increased NPK uptake by both weeds and wheat. However maximum fertilizer use efficiency and grain yield of wheat were achieved when highest dose of fertilizers (F2) was used along with manual weed control method (W4), which was followed by F2 and W3 during both years. We have come to the conclusion that to achieve higher wheat yield by increasing fertilizer doses, farmers should take appropriate weed control measures.

To investigate the allelopathic effect of Marsilea minuta against the germination and seedling growths of rice (Oryza sativa) and wheat (Triticum aestivum), germination bioassays were conducted in both Petri dish and soil cultures in laboratory conditions. Rice and wheat seeds were allowed to germinate in a 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5% (w/v) aqueous extract of whole plant and 2, 4, 6, and 8% (w/w) plant residue-incorporated soils of M. minuta. In Petri dish experiments, 5% (w/v) an aqueous extract of M. mimuta showed significantly lower germination percentages (18.8% and 56.3%), root lengths (0.9 and 4.5 cm), shoot lengths (3.3 and 12.4 cm), seedling lengths (4.1 and 25.0 cm), root dry weights (1.4 and 5.6 g), shoot dry weights (1.1 and 9.0 g), seedling biomasses (2.5 and 14.6 g), and seedling vigor indices (77.4 and 957.3) in rice and wheat, respectively. In pot experiments, the M. minuta residue infested soil, with 8% concentration, produced significantly lower germination percentages (25.3 and 37.5%), root lengths (2.7 and 6.1 cm), shoot lengths (6.2 and 16.5 cm), seedling lengths (8.9 and 22.6 cm), root dry weights (2.4 and 5.5 g), shoot dry weights (4.0 and 2.8 g), seedling biomasses (6.4 and 8.3 g), and seedling vigor indices (224.1 and 855.3) in rice and wheat, respectively. The highest phytotoxic action of 5% aqueous whole plant extract of M. minuta against test crops seem to be due to the presence of two potent phenolic compounds, namely p-coumaric acid (2.91 mg L-1) and m-coumaric acid (1.59 mg L-1) as determined by HPLC analysis.

ABSTRACT Aquatic weeds are higher plants found in the aquatic ecosystem and in anaerobic rice fields, where they have no economic benefits. The continuance of aquatic weeds is more widespread than terrestrial weeds because in aquatic ecosystems there is very little fluctuation in the environmental conditions compared with terrestrial ecosystems. Scientists have been working to address the harmful allelopathic effects of aquatic weeds on the aquatic ecosystem, but limited information is available on the allelopathic influence of aquatic weeds on agro-ecosystems through the release of phytotoxic compounds. Phytotoxic chemicals released by different aquatic weeds into irrigation water and/or directly into rice ecosystems might have a significant inhibitory influence on germination, growth and yield field crops, soil properties and nutrients availability, population and community structure, and weed invasion. However, aquatic weeds might also be used as a potential organic alternative to chemical weed-control, due to the higher susceptibility of terrestrial weeds to the phototoxic chemicals released by aquatic weeds. Natural alternatives to chemical weed control are need of time and are crucial for a sustainable weed control. Chemical weed control is challenged, due to recent increases in herbicides resistance from weeds and to the harmful side-effects of herbicides on the environment. This review is focused on the influence of aquatic weeds on agro-ecosystems, with examples of common weeds in aquatic ecosystems and invasive aquatic weeds found in anaerobic rice.

ABSTRACT Alternanthera species are invasive aquatic/semi-aquatic weeds posing a serious threat to agro-biodiversity in several countries in the world. The present study was conducted to assess the phytotoxic effects of Alternanthera philoxeroides and A. sessilis residues on emergence and early seedling growth traits of rice (Oryza sativa). Soil was prepared with 4% (w/w) Alternanthera species residues separately and allowed to decay for 0, 15 and 30 days. Rice emergence was significantly decreased but increase in mean emergence time and time to 50% emergence was observed in soils modified with Alternanthera species residues compared with seed sown in unmodified soils. Rice emergence was reduced to 50-67% and 52-75% by A. sessilis and A. philoxeroides, respectively. A significant reduction in rice root, shoot length, and biomass was also noted with Alternanthera-infested soil. Total phenolics increased with increasing residue decay time in both species thereby showing their direct interaction with emergence and seedling traits of rice. The phenolic compounds identified were namely Quercitin, Chlorogenic acid, P-Coumeric acid, Trans-4-hydroxy3-methoxy, Cinamic acid, Caffeic acid, Syringic acid, Sinapic acid, Vanillic acid, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy benzoic acid.

The system of rice intensification has emerged as a promising rice production package but weed infestation could lead to incomplete benefits from the system. A two-year field study was performed to determine an appropriate method of weed management in SRI. Weed management treatments were manual hoeing 20, 40 and 60 days after transplanting (DAT), hoeing with rotary hoe at 20, 40 and 60 DAT, hoeing with rotary hoe at 20 DAT + spray with sorghum and sunflower water extracts at 15 L ha-1 40 DAT, manual hoeing 20 DAT + spray with sorghum and sunflower water extracts, both in equal amount, at 15 L ha-1 40 DAT, orthosulfamuron at 145 g a.i. ha-1 7 DAT, weedy check and weed free. Manual hoeing at 20, 40 and 60 DAT was the treatment that exhibited the maximum kernel yield i.e. 5.34 and 4.99 t ha-1., which was 8.4 and 7.2% higher than orthosulfamuron and 61.0 and 64.9% higher than weedy check, during both years of study, respectively. The highest weed suppression was also achieved by manual hoeing at 20, 40 and 60 DAT with weed control efficiency of 87.89 and 82.32% during 2010 and 2011, respectively. Manual hoeing at 20, 40 and 60 DAT is an eco-friendly, non-chemical weed control method to increase kernel yield of fine rice under SRI.

A laboratory study was conducted to investigate the allelopathic effect of aqueous extracts of plant parts of Alternanthera philoxeroides and A. sessilis and soil incorporated residues on germination and seedling growth of rice (Oryza sativa). Aqueous extracts prepared from different plant parts of Alternanthera species delayed rice germination. Alternanthera philoxeroides and A. sessilis inhibited rice germination by 9-100% and 4-49%, respectively. Germination of rice seeds was reduced with increasing concentration of aqueous leaf extracts of both weed species. Early seedling growth (root and shoot lengths) and seedling vigor index were significantly reduced by 5% aqueous leaf extract compared with distilled water treated control. Germination, root and shoot lengths, root and shoot dry weights and seedling vigor index of rice were drastically reduced by 3 and 4% in residue infested soil compared with residue free soil. The inhibitory effect of A. philoxeroides in terms of germination and seedling growth of rice was greater than that of A. sessilis. Five percent aqueous leaf extract and 4% residue infested soil of A. philoxeroides caused complete failure of rice seed germination. Alternanthera philoxeroides contained water soluble phenolics, namely 4 hydroxy-3-methoxy benzoic acid (16.19 mg L-1) and m-coumaric acid (1.48 mg L-1), whereas Alternanthera sessilis was rich in chlorogenic acid (17.85 mg L-1), gallic acid (11.03 mg L-1) and vanillic acid (9.88 mg L-1). The study indicates that the allelopathic potential of Alternanthera species may play an important role in enhancing the invasiveness of these species and may suppress rice plants in the vicinity.

Experiments were conducted to evaluate the allelopathic influence of Rhynchosia capitata on germination and seedling growth of mungbean (Vigna radiate) along with identification of the phytotoxic substances responsible for this activity. Water extracts of root, shoot, leaf, fruit and whole plant were prepared by soaking them in water in a ratio of 1:20 (w/v) for 24 h. All the extracts affected germination and seedling growth of mungbean, but higher inhibition was seen with R. capitata leaf water extracts. A linear decrease in the germination characteristics of mungbean was observed with the decrease in the concentration of leaf extract from 5% to 1%. The soil-incorporated residues (1-4% w/w) of R. capitata stimulated the growth of root and hypocotyl at low concentrations, while it inhibited their growth at higher concentrations. Rhynchosia capitata soil-incorporated residues (4% w/w) significantly reduced the seedling vigour index of mungbean in addition to their significant effect on total germination. A significant amount of water-soluble phenolic acids were found in R. capitata plant extracts. The content of total phenolic acids was higher in the leaf extract compared to that of the stem, fruit or root extracts. Two phenolic acids including vanillic acid and 4‑(hydroxymethyl) benzoic acid were found in R. capitata leaf extracts.

Rhynchosia capitata is becoming an increasing problem in summer crops, such as cotton, soybean, pearl millet and mungbean in many Asian countries. Laboratory and greenhouse studies have been conducted to determine the effects of several environmental factors on seed germination patterns and seedling emergence of R. capitata. We investigated whether the diverse ecological factors such as temperature, light, salinity, moisture stress, pH, and soil depth affected germination and seedling emergence of R. capitata. Germination increased as temperature increased from 25ºC and significantly reduced at 45ºC. Presence or absence of light did not influence germination. Germination of R. capitata was sensitive to increased salt and moisture stress, as well as to seed burial depth. Only 48% of seeds germinated at 150 mM salt concentration compared to 100% in control (distilled water). Similarly, 15% of seeds germinated at an osmotic potential of ‑0.8 MPa compared to 88% at ‑0.2 MPa. The optimum pH for seed germination of R. capitata was 7 (98% germination), but the seeds also germinated at lower level of pH 5 (85%) and at higher level of pH 10 (75%). In seed burial trial, maximum seedling emergence of 93% occurred at 2 cm depth, and seedling did not emerge from a depth of 12 cm. The high germination ability of R. capitata under a wide range of ecological factors suggests that this species is likely to be the one to cause more problems in a near future, if not managed appropriately.A Rhynchosia capitata vem se tornando um problema crescente para culturas de verão como algodão, soja, milheto e feijão-mungo em muitos países asiáticos. Foram feitos estudos de laboratório e estufa para determinar os efeitos de vários fatores ambientais sobre os padrões de germinação das sementes e emergência das plântulas de R. capitata. Diversos fatores ecológicos, tais como, temperatura, luz, salinidade, estresse hídrico, pH e profundidade do solo foram avaliados para saber se afetam a germinação e emergência das plântulas de R. capitata. A germinação aumentou à medida que a temperatura aumentou a partir de 25ºC e reduziu significativamente a 45ºC. A presença ou ausência de luz não influenciou a germinação. A germinação das sementes de R. capitata se mostrou sensível ao aumento dos estresses hídrico e salino, bem como à profundidade do enterrio das sementes. Apenas 48% das sementes germinaram a 150 mM de concentração salina, em comparação com 100% no controle (água destilada). Do mesmo modo, 15% das sementes germinaram a um potencial osmótico de -0,8 MPa, em comparação com 88% a -0,2 MPa. O pH ideal para a germinação de sementes de R. capitata foi 7 (98% de germinação), mas as sementes germinaram também a um nível inferior de pH 5 (85%) e superior de pH 10 (75%). No experimento de enterrio das sementes, a máxima emergência das plântulas de 93% foi a 2 cm de profundidade e as plântulas não emergiram a partir da profundidade de 12 cm. A alta capacidade de germinação da R. capitata sob uma ampla gama de fatores ecológicos sugere que provavelmente esta espécie será a que mais causará problemas em um futuro próximo se não for gerida de forma adequada.

A field study was conducted at Agronomic Research Area, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad during spring, 2007 to evaluate the effect of different chelated zinc sources on growth and yield of maize (Zea mays L.). Crop was sown on well prepared soil in 1st week of March, 2007. The experiment was laid out according to randomized complete block design. The treatments comprised of different chelated zinc sources: ZnSO4-DTPA, ZnSO4-Fulvate, ZnSO4-Lignosulphonate, ZnSO4-EDTA and ZnSO4-H2O along with control (no zinc), repeated three times. Results showed that number of cobs plant-1, grain rows cob-1 and oil contents did not differ significantly. However, differences among treatments for plant height at harvest (cm), leaf area plant-1 (cm2), stem diameter (cm), cob length (cm), cob diameter (cm), 100-grains weight (g), number of grains cob-1, grains weight cob-1(g), biological yield (tons ha-1), grain yield (tons ha-1) and protein contents (%) were significantly higher. Moreover, results also revealed that ZnSO4-DPTA was found the most effective Zn chelated source among all the treatments. Rest of the chelating agents were not too impressive as they showed varied response for different variables. The result of this experiment suggest further experimentation to explore behaviour of Zn-DTPA with other macro and micro nutrients and to calculate cost benefit ratio for use ofZn chelated compounds.

This study was designed to determine for the first time in Iraq the clinical and biochemical changes occured in calves affected with hypomagnesaemic tetany. Fifty clinically normal calves and 50 calves showing symptoms of hypomagnesaemic tetany were used in the present study. Their ages ranged from 2-7 months. Clinical signs of affected animals were registered. Blood samples were taken from the 2 groups of animals to determine the levels of magnesium, calcium, phosphorous, potassium, sodium as well as 2 of the serum enzymes (SCOT & CPK). Tetany group of animals showed significantly decrease (P