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ABSTRACT: Qualitative research related to humans, dairy cows, calves, and farming has been published by scientists from a variety of disciplines in many journals targeting dairy science audiences. We aimed to investigate how scientific communities other than those working in dairy science describe, analyze, and discuss dairy farming, because we found it important to bring this research to the attention of dairy scientists. In total, 117 articles were identified as involving one or more qualitative research methods in relation to dairy cattle. The review brought out a wealth of perspectives, new insights, and discussions related to dairy cattle, farmers, farming, and the sector, and in relation to societal issues and food and ecological landscapes. A broad range of qualitative research methods were used, and the literature targeted issues at the animal, farm, societal, food system, and landscape levels. Some raised critical questions about existing structures, highlighted unfairness in the industry, or pointed to new potential futures and contemporary agendas. We expect that it will be inspirational and stimulating for researchers to review new sources of literature and suggest a closer interdisciplinary collaboration among researchers from different disciplines for the future development of research involving dairy cattle. Further, it could be relevant and even necessary to engage in such interaction to avoid increasing polarization around future development of the sector—for example, related to climate change or how industrialization seems to push inequity or ignore the agency of animals themselves. Exploring perspectives of farming from different angles could enrich the outcomes of future dairy research.

ABSTRACT: The use of qualitative research in dairy science has increased considerably in recent years, providing the opportunity to inform research and practice. This review aims to enhance the accessibility of qualitative research among a range of audiences and specifically: (1) provide an overview of what qualitative research is and the value it can bring to scientific inquiries in the dairy context, (2) illustrate the emergence of qualitative dairy science research in the past 15 to 20 years, (3) outline the role of the researcher and key philosophical assumptions underlying qualitative research, (4) describe qualitative research approaches and methods used in dairy science research, and (5) highlight key aspects of qualitative inquiry used to ensure research trustworthiness. Qualitative approaches in dairy science enable researchers to understand myriad topics including stakeholder relationships, decision-making, and behaviors regarding dairy cattle management, animal welfare, and disease prevention and control measures. Approaches that were used often for qualitative data collection were individual interviews and focus groups, and variations of thematic analysis were common analytical frameworks. To assess public values, attitudes, and perceptions, mixed methods questionnaires that combined quantitative data with qualitative data from open-ended questions were used regularly. Although still used infrequently, action research and participatory approaches have the potential to bridge the research-implementation gap by facilitating group-based learning and on-farm changes. Some publications described the philosophical assumptions inherent to qualitative research, and many authors included reflexivity and positionality statements. Although a comprehensive description of strategies to meet trustworthiness criteria for qualitative research was uncommon, many publications mentioned certain aspects of trustworthiness, such as member checking, researcher triangulation, and the recording of reflexive notes. Qualitative research has been used to deepen our understanding of phenomena relevant to the dairy sector and has opened the door for a broad array of new opportunities. In addition to having merit on its own, qualitative research can guide, inform, and expand on quantitative research, and an understanding of the core pillars of qualitative research can foster interdisciplinary collaborations.

Beef cattle farmers were interviewed about what “sustainability” means to them with regard to their daily practices, both in their daily working life and after being confronted with the results of an assessment conducted on their farms prior to a focus group discussion (FGD) utilizing the Sustainability Assessment of Food and Agriculture (SAFA) system developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. The study presented in this article was based on two FGDs, using the results of the SAFA online assessment as a tool to initiate and facilitate the discussions. The two group discussions were recorded using a digital voice recorder, transcribed in full and then coded using the software program Transana. The discussions were organized into themes, which allowed a basis for the further analysis. The themes allowed us to build a picture of the participants’ views and thoughts on sustainability with regard to their farming management practices in the light of the SAFA framework, and their own thoughts and perception of the government’s action to promote sustainability, as well as to consider its implications for the futures of their own farms. The interviewed beef cattle farmers thought of sustainability on a day-to-day context rather than as a multi-dimensional concept. In their views, sustainability was very much about being able to continue farming, for the farm to survive and about being able to hand it over to the next generation. However, when presented with the four dimensions of the SAFA framework, they acknowledged the wider perspectives and different aspects of sustainability and reflected about how their own agricultural practices related to these wider aspects too.

Mixed farming systems (MFS) have demonstrated some success by focusing on the use of integrative and holistic mechanisms, and rationally building on and using the natural and local resource base without exhausting it, while enhancing biodiversity, optimizing complementarities between crops and animal systems and finally increasing opportunities in rural livelihoods. Focusing our analysis and discussion on field experiences and empirical knowledge in the Caribbean islands, this paper discusses the opportunities for a change needed in current MFS research–development philosophy. The importance of shifting from fragile/specialized production systems to MFS under current global conditions is argued with an emphasis on the case of Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) and the Caribbean. Particular vulnerable characteristics as well as the potential and constraints of SIDS and their agricultural sectors are described, while revealing the opportunities for the ‘richness’ of the natural and local resources to support authentic and less dependent production system strategies. Examples are provided of the use of natural grasses, legumes, crop residues and agro-industrial by-products. We analyse the requirement for a change in research strategies and initiatives through the development of a complex but necessary multi-/inter-/trans-disciplinary teamwork spirit. We stress as essential the collaboration and active participation of local and regional actors, stakeholders and end-users in the identification of research priorities, as well as the generation, exchange and dissemination of knowledge and technology innovations, while strengthening the leadership roles in the conduct of integrative and participative research and development projects.

Between August and October 2000, a cross-sectional study was conducted in smallholder dairy farms in Mbale District, Uganda to assess the prevalence of ticks and tick-borne diseases under different grazing systems and agro-ecological zones and understand the circumstances under which farmers operated. A questionnaire was administered to obtain information on dairy farm circumstances and practices. A total of 102 farms were visited and sera and ticks were collected from 478 animals. Sero-prevalence of tick-borne diseases was determined using an enzyme-linked immunoassay. Acaricides were used indiscriminately but the intensity of their use varied with the grazing system and zone. Cattle from different farms mixed for various reasons. During the dry seasons farmers have to get additional fodder from outside their farms that can result in importation of ticks. The prevalence of ticks and serum antibodies to tick-borne infections differed across the grazing systems and zones. The highest serum antibody prevalence (>60%) was recorded in the lowland zone under the free range and tethering grazing systems. The lowest tick challenge and serum antibody levels (

Abstract??Within the framework of a research project investigating methods to decrease mastitis incidence, farmer groups for participatory training in a modified Farmer Field School approach were initiated in order to improve animal health and farmer knowledge in mastitis control technologies in smallholder dairy farms in the Jinja district of Uganda. Two peri-urban groups and one rural group met for common learning and training two hours per fortnight during a 12-month period, facilitated by two local extension agents together with one or two scientists from Makerere University. Farmers rotated each time between farms owned by group participants, which demanded mutual trust, openness and respect. From their own assessment the farmers felt they had improved their milk production and reduced mastitis incidence on their farms. In an evaluation workshop, they articulated how they had built up common knowledge and experience from training in systematic clinical examination of animals, evaluation of the farm environments, and identification of improvements. Much of the acquired new knowledge was about basic dairy cow management and husbandry practices. In addition, they gave examples of how they were now used as resource persons in their local communities. Principles of learning and empowerment are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When calves are reared by cows, separation can be stressful, and it is often advised to use gradual weaning to minimize this stress. In foster cow systems, one gradual weaning method is to remove the foster cows, one by one, from the cow-calf group. The response to one-by-one removal of foster cows of 32 calves housed in 5 groups was studied. Calves were fostered to a designated foster cow individually, in pairs, or in trios, at the age of 1 to 2 wk and then housed in groups of 4 to 6 foster cows and 6 to 11 calves until gradual weaning started at 3 mo of age. Calf behavior and aggression received by calves from cows were recorded using video during 18 h before any foster cow was removed, as well as 18 h before and 18 h after the designated foster cow was removed from the group. Before any foster cow was removed, the calves spent a similar amount of time sucking the designated foster cow and other cows (in total 43 ± 5 min/18 h). The total duration of sucking was similar before and after the designated foster was removed, as the duration of sucking other cows increased. The number of aggressive events received from other cows also increased. The results indicate that milk availability for the group of calves decreases as foster cows are gradually removed and that the older and heavier calves increasingly compete with the younger and lighter calves for the available milk. This weaning method may also compromise the welfare of the foster cows that are left to wean off an increasing number of calves, and this warrants further research., (© 2023.)

Most dairy farms rear calves artificially by separating the newly born calf from the dam and feeding the calf milk from a bucket. However, the general public and scientific community have begun to question the effects of artificial rearing on animal welfare. Research so far has focused mainly on dam-calf contact, where each cow takes care of her own calf. However, previous studies show that Danish and other European farmers are using and showing interest in a variety of different cow-calf contact (CCC) systems. In the present study, we used qualitative research methods to explore the perspectives of Danish farmers who either had or had tried to establish a version of a CCC system. Farmers were asked about their motivation for establishing the system, what had shaped the system to its current form, and how they perceived the calves to benefit from the system. Practical considerations was the theme most commonly brought up and related to both why farmers chose to have CCC in the first place and in what way they had chosen to organize their CCC system. Practical considerations included a sense of ease, flexibility, and a more natural and therefore rational approach. The economy was also a repeated theme, but although the economy to a large degree shapes the type of CCC chosen (dam-calf contact or foster cow contact), it was rarely mentioned in relation to choosing a CCC system in the first place. Ethical considerations were a strong motivator for farmers with dam-calf contact systems, although less so for farmers with foster cow contact. The farm's image as seen by the consumer was an important motivation for farmers with many on-farm visitors, and with the farm's image in the eyes of the farming community potentially also influencing farmers. Farmers generally perceived the calves to benefit from the care of the cow and no difference was seen in the importance attributed to care, between farmers choosing dam-calf contact and foster cow systems., (© 2023, The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

This study had 2 aims: first, to describe the intent of a learning process among farmers about cow-calf contact (CCC) systems using a so-called Stable School approach, where farmers advise farmers. The second aim was to identify the main themes that arose from the conversations held throughout the 21 meetings that focused on the topic of CCC. The meetings were hosted by 10 host farmers. In total, 32 farmers, farm managers, employees, and calf caregivers who collectively represented 16 farms participated. Characteristics of participating farms varied widely, including herd sizes, which ranged from 7 to 600 cows. At each of the 21 meetings, a written summary was recorded and uploaded to a common data storage site. Using an inductive approach, words, phrases, topics, and suggestions were coded into themes relevant to CCC systems and processes of learning and change. The longitudinal nature of this study allowed for the capturing of how farmers changed their views on how to care for the animals and the concept of keeping cows and calves together. A central theme was how they identified particular challenges associated with a CCC system, such as space requirements or pasture access, and then collectively identified potential solutions for implementing cow-calf contact on their farms, increasingly using experience from their own farms. In addition to raising questions regarding the practical aspects of implementing a CCC system, many participants also raised ethical questions, and many acknowledged their pleasure and joy in seeing the system work and the animals thriving (e.g., when calves were playing or seemed to learn very quickly from the cows). Steps that led to an increased understanding among farmers on this topic included developing a shared language, for instance, referring to the "sharing of milk with the calf" rather than the "loss of milk." Despite the diversity of farms represented by the participants, there was an overall acceptance that they were colleagues and thus were highly supportive of each other. Many participants viewed foster cow systems as a more feasible option for providing CCC than dam-rearing systems, but some also viewed the foster cow system as a stepping stone to their long-term goal of implementing a dam-rearing system. This study provided evidence that socially situated learning and communities of practice can facilitate learning by farmers interested in developing, implementing, and improving CCC systems in different dairy farming contexts., (The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

In recent years, the common dairy farming practice of early separation of dam and calf has received increased attention. Our aim was to explore how Norwegian dairy farmers with cow-calf contact (CCC) systems apply these systems in practice, and how they experience and perceive the interrelationships between cows and calves and humans within these systems. We conducted in-depth interviews with 17 farmers from 12 dairy farms and analyzed responses inductively, inspired by the grounded theory approach. The farmers in our study practiced their CCC systems differently from each other and had varying as well as common perceptions about these systems. Calves' intake of colostrum was not seen as a challenge, regardless of practice. The farmers generally perceived that any aggression shown by cows toward humans was merely an exhibition of cows' natural protective instinct. However, when the farmers had good relationships with their cows and the cows felt safe around them, the farmers could handle the calves and build good relationships with them as well. The farmers experienced the calves learning a lot from their dams. Most of the farmers' dairy housing systems were not adapted for CCC, and CCC systems could require modification in terms of placing greater emphasis on observing the animals and making adjustments in the barn and around milking. Some thought having CCC on pasture was the best and most natural, while others were reluctant to have CCC on pasture. The farmers encountered some challenges with stressed animals after later separation, but several had found methods to minimize stress. Generally, they had different opinions about workload, but agreed they spent less time on calf feeding. We found that these farmers were thriving with their CCC systems; they all described positive emotions around seeing cows and their calves together. Animal welfare and natural behavior were important to the farmers., (The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

Under natural conditions, most parturient cows seek visual cover or seclude themselves from the herd when calving becomes imminent. Studies on calving site selection of dairy cows housed indoors show that predominantly older and dominant cows calve in secluded areas. This study aimed to investigate whether cows distance themselves further from herd members under spacious outdoor conditions and whether artificial hides on a pasture motivate cows to seek visual isolation from the herd. One hundred eighty-two Danish Holstein cows were allocated to 1 of 13 groups of 14 cows according to expected calving date. In 2 paddocks (each 75 × 150 m), 5 zones (75 m × 30 m) were defined; zone 0 contained the feeding and shade area, and zone 4 bordered an area with trees. Weekly and according to calving date, a group of 14 cows was moved either to a paddock that had 12 hides distributed evenly throughout zones 1 to 4 (7 groups) or to a paddock without hides (6 groups). The hides were wooden structures (3.3 m long × 1.0 m wide × 1.2 m high) that the cows could hide behind. One hundred seven cows calved within 14 d of having been moved to the paddock, and 82 of these (38 primiparous and 44 multiparous), and their calves, were included in the study. From 3 h before until 3 h after calving, the location, posture, and behavior of cows were recorded continuously from video recordings. In addition, location, posture, and behavior of the calves were recorded for the first 3 h after birth. Continuous variables were analyzed by linear mixed effects models, whereas binary data were analyzed using mixed effects logistic regression. The presence of hides did not affect selection of calving location in the paddock, but more primiparous than multiparous cows calved in zone 4; that is, furthest away from the feeding area. Before calving, primiparous cows were more likely to be positioned in zone 4 and less likely to approach and contact herd members. After calving, primiparous cows and their calves tended to be more likely to be positioned in zone 4. The more cows present in the paddock, the less likely the cows were to isolate (i.e., be further than 30 m away from any other cow) at the time of calving. In addition, the more cows in the paddock when a calf was born, the less time these calves spent in a lying posture. The results show that primiparous cows move further away from herd members at calving than multiparous cows and suggest that primiparous cows prefer to isolate themselves through distance rather than seeking artificial cover. Contrary to expectation, the hides did not make more cows select a calving site away from the feeding area., (The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

The global risk for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) can be reduced by reducing antimicrobial use (AMU). Veterinarians are one of the key actors in relation to AMU in livestock, and understanding the dynamics of veterinary treatment and prescription is central to achieving AMU reduction. Veterinary AMU decisions are influenced by a complex pattern of both individual and contextual factors. In this study, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 16 Danish cattle veterinarians to investigate their perspectives on AMU and current practices in a national context with low use and extensive legal control. We found that personal experiences and emotions, rather than scientific evidence, guided some veterinarians when making AMU choices. Furthermore, less-experienced veterinarians felt pressure to prescribe according to colleagues' and farmers' preferences for certain antimicrobials. We found that changes in Danish legislation seemed to have introduced hesitancy and a lack of motivation within the veterinary profession, and that AMR was perceived as an abstract threat not applicable to the veterinarians' daily professional decision making. We concluded that the lack of field-generated research of local relevance nourished a culture in which AMU choices are built on personal experience rather than scientific evidence, which also diminished newly educated veterinarians' self-confidence in relation to their AMU choices. Future research should focus on developing locally relevant research on optimal AMU choices and AMR, and the implications of extensive legal control of AMU in livestock farming should be further investigated to find a balance on the path to reducing AMU., (The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

Limiting antimicrobial use (AMU) in dairy farming is an important step toward reducing antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Therefore, it is relevant to understand dairy farmers' choices and the potential for change in relation to AMU, even in countries with low usage. Furthermore, there is an increasing recognition of the need to focus on both the individual farmer's behavior as well as the context surrounding and influencing the farmer's decisions in relation to AMU if the goal is further reduction. To date, no studies have taken into account both the individual farmer and their context in both conventional and organic dairy farms under Danish conditions. For this study, 15 Danish dairy farmers were interviewed using qualitative semi-structured research interviews, and the notion of landscape was used to describe the context of their AMU. We found that AMR was considered a distant element of the farmers' antimicrobial landscape. Daily challenges such as acutely diseased animals and poor housing conditions seemed more urgent and overruled the threat of AMR. We also found that interviewed farmers had differing opinions on farm management, partly shaped by changes in legislation and ways of farming over time. At one end of the scale, some organic farmers had rethought the current way of farming; keeping robust animals in a natural setting was expected to prevent disease. They were positive about legislation, and the numerous restrictions on AMU over time were thought to contribute to ensuring quality for consumers. At the other end of the scale, some conventional farmers perceived disease as something that should be controlled through treatment, and the currently eased legislation and intensification of farming have legitimatized AMU for this purpose, leading to an expectation among these farmers of certain rights to handle medicines themselves. These contrasting views might lead to inspiration and competition in terms of reducing AMU, as the farmers appeared to value the opinions of other farmers, and they were found to continuously assess each other. Through such ongoing assessment, pioneers of AMU reduction-whether organic or conventional-might motivate their colleagues to change their AMU. Future research should address the potential of experience- and attitude-sharing among farmers as motivation to reduce AMU., (© 2021, The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).)

This position paper describes a common stand on methodology of human attitudes and behaviour that is suitable to use in studies regarding cow-calf contact (CCC) in dairy production, in order to create a common knowledge base and foundation for future recommendations of CCC systems. We describe how different quantitative and qualitative methods can be used to study human attitudes to CCC as well as farmer or consumer behaviour. We aim to contribute to a better understanding of the available methods, and hope that this paper can be used as a guideline for future studies in this area.

Due to increasing public concern regarding separation of the dairy cow and calf within the first days after birth, alternative systems, where cows and calves stay in contact for an extended period, are receiving increasing interest from a broad array of researchers and other stakeholders. With more research in the area, there is a risk of inconsistencies emerging in the use of terminology. To create a better consensus in further discussions, the aim of this Research Reflection is to provide definitions and propose a common terminology for cow-calf contact in dairy production. We also suggest definitions for various systems allowing cow-calf contact and describe the distinct phases of cow-calf contact systems.

Large quantities of antimicrobials are used in Swiss veal production. To develop strategies to reduce antimicrobial use, it is important to understand how stakeholders along the veal production chain perceive the current situation and to find the key issues that challenge them about calf health management and antimicrobial use. However, there has been insufficient research into the individual contexts of the supply chain actors, and the central themes that they perceive to enable or limit their actions remain largely unknown. The aim of this study is to investigate the perceptions of the current situation of the Swiss veal production system, in terms of calf health management and antimicrobial use held by industry stakeholders, i.e. dairy farmers, veal producers, traders, slaughterhouse managers, advisors and veterinarians. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 27 respondents and analyzed using content analysis. The results show that stakeholders are aware of the current need to minimize resistance development and the related risks for public health by reducing antimicrobial use. The main reason for high antimicrobial use was nominated as the practice of purchasing calves from many different dairy farms and bringing them together in large groups at a young age, which exposes them to a variety of pathogens that their still developing immune systems are not able to cope with. To prevent and combat infectious diseases which are a frequent consequence of this practice, antimicrobial group treatments are commonly administered, which significantly raises the total amount of antimicrobials used. Group level treatments with antimicrobials were associated directly with the large-scale veal farming system, which uses excess calves from specialized dairy farms, and which the respondents perceive to cause financial pressure and mutual dependencies among participants. In addition, disunity between actors was perceived as a further challenge to find strategies for the reduction of antimicrobial use. The respondents suggested downscaling the production system so that calves can be treated individually but conceded that the current system may be very difficult to change, so also suggested various improvement measures within the existing system. The results of this study provide a basis for further research to investigate possible interventions that could considerably reduce antimicrobial use in veal production., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Organic dairy farmers must live up to the organic goal of 'good health' in respect the organic principles and regulation. Veterinarians could be the organic dairy farmers' expected sparring partners in reaching this goal but have found difficulties to establish advisory relationships with them. The objectives of this study are -from organic dairy farmers' points of view- (i) to describe farmers' objectives and strategies regarding herd health, (ii) to describe private veterinarians' roles in farmers' animal health promotion strategies and (iii) to identify farmers' reasons for accepting veterinarians in an advisory role. Fourteen organic dairy farmers were interviewed using qualitative research interviews. Data collection and analysis was performed using a modified approach to Grounded Theory. Organic dairy farmers had animal health management strategies focusing on animal health promotion. Veterinarians had most often solely the role of therapist in farmers' animal health management strategies. Reasons explaining that veterinarians were not able to establish advisory roles were found in the differences between veterinarians and farmers regarding their animal health strategies and solutions to disease problems. Furthermore, veterinarians did not always share farmers' (organic) objectives, values and priorities and this could lead to disagreement on the best choice in animal health management practices. This might be further amplified in situations where there exists a lack of dialogue and mutual interest in other., (Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of the major helminth infections affecting organic dairy cattle in northern Spain. Milk and faecal samples were obtained from 443 milking cows. Ostertagia ostertargi and Fasciola hepatica exposure was assessed by detection of specific antibodies in milk samples and F. hepatica infection was diagnosed by the detection of coproantigens in faecal samples. Dictyocaulus viviparus and Calicophoron daubneyi infections were diagnosed by conventional coprological techniques. The prevalence of infections caused by F. hepatica was considerable low, but similar to data reported from conventional farming in the same area. The prevalence rate of C. daubneyi infection was higher than previous data mirroring an increase of the prevalence that was also reported in other European countries in recent years. Specific antibodies against O. ostertargi were detected in all herds and the median levels of antibodies, determined by ELISA, exceeded the thresholds indicating milk production losses. The prevalence of D. viviparus was almost negligible. For each parasite, an ordinal logistic-regression analysis was used to assess the risk of infection by taking into account the administration of effective anthelmintics and the number of lactations. Treatment of cows with fasciolicides decreased the risk of F. hepatica infection in multiparous cows, whereas treatment with oxiclozanide or albendazol did not decrease the risk of C. daubneyi infection or O. ostertargi exposure, respectively. The study findings demonstrate that helminth infection in organic dairy farming is similar or even lower than previous data reported from conventional farming. Special attention should be paid to the impact of these infections on milk production., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

A longitudinal study to assess animal management practices and milk production was conducted for a period of 12 months on 30 smallholder farms keeping dairy cattle and certified organic pineapple production in Luwero and Kayunga districts, based on questionnaire and on-farm collected data. Farm sizes were 9.3 ± 6.7 acres in tethering system and 4.3 ± 2.6 acres in zero-grazing. Fifty-four percent of the zero-grazing herds had animal housing facilities. All farmers in tethering system kept cows on earthen floors and calves without bedding. Hygiene level in existing farms was low. Majority of calves were fed once a day by restricted suckling (77 %). Seventy-four percent of tethered cows were only fed on natural grass, while cows under zero-grazing system had a more diversified diet but with 82 % feeding mainly Napier grass. Most farms (87 %) used bulls for breeding. Milk production was higher (P < 0.05) in zero-grazing (6.5 L/cow/day) than tethering system, and higher (P < 0.05) for Holstein-Friesian crossbred cows (5.2 L/cow/day) than local breed cows (2.6 L/cow/day). Less than 1 L of milk per farm per day on average was sold. Disease treatments were exclusively for helminths, East Coast fever, and trypanasomiasis. Spraying of ticks and deworming were important control measures of vector-borne diseases. There is potential to develop alternative feed resources for dairy cattle and biorational pesticides for control and treatment of vector-borne diseases.

Veterinarians could be the expected sparring partners of organic dairy farmers in promoting animal health which is one of the main organic principles. However, in the past organic dairy farmers did not always consider veterinarians to be pertinent advisors for them. The objectives of this study are - from private veterinary practitioners' point of views- i) to describe the roles of veterinarians today in organic dairy farmers' animal health promotion strategies, ii) to identify factors related to organic farming which determine their role on organic dairy farms, and, iii) to identify opportunities for improvement of veterinarians' advisory services for organic dairy herds. Fourteen veterinarians, providing herd health advisory services to dairy farmers, were interviewed using qualitative semi-structured research interviews. A modified approach to Grounded Theory was used for data collection and analysis. Most often veterinarians had only contact with the organic dairy farmers in cases of individual ill animals or acute herd health problems. Even though certain veterinarians experienced situations and approaches of animal health and welfare on organic dairy farms not meeting their standards, they were not always able to establish themselves an advisory role supporting farmers in improving this. Indeed, organic production principles, regulations and farmers' health approaches challenged veterinarians' values on animal health and welfare and their perceptions of 'good veterinary practices'. Also, some veterinarians considered that there was no direct economic interest for them in the organic dairy sector and that could diminish their willingness to invest in this sector. Possible opportunities for improvement were identified; for example proposing more proactively advice via existing organisations, by making adaptations to advisory services for the organic sector and/or by dissociating veterinarians' curative role from their advisory role in disease prevention., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

To promote and maintain health in agricultural and food systems, appropriate criteria are needed for the description and assessment of the health of soils, plants, animals, humans and ecosystems. Here we identify the concept of resilience as a universally applicable and fundamentally important criterion of health in all relevant areas of agriculture. We discuss definitions of resilience for soils, plants, animals, humans and ecosystems, and explore ways in which resilience can be applied as a criterion of health in different agricultural contexts. We show how and why resilience can be seen as a key criterion of health. Based on this, we discuss how resilience can be used as a link between soil, plant, animal, human and ecosystem health. Finally, we highlight four key areas for future research on resilience in agriculture, namely spatial and temporal scaling of resilience; effects of diversity; the role of networks for resilience; and stakeholder involvement., (© 2013 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Development in organic farming has been stimulated by farmers and consumers becoming interested in healthy food products and sustainable environment. Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which is based on the principles of health, ecology, care, and fairness. Organic development in Uganda has focused more on the crop sector than livestock sector and has primarily involved the private sector, like organic products export companies and non-governmental organizations. Agriculture in Uganda and many African countries is predominantly traditional, less mechanized, and is usually associated with minimum use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and drugs. This low external input agriculture also referred to as "organic by default" can create basis for organic farming where agroecological methods are introduced and present an alternative in terms of intensification to the current low-input/low-output systems. Traditional farming should not be confused with organic farming because in some cases, the existing traditional practices have consequences like overstocking and less attention to soil improvement as well as to animal health and welfare, which is contrary to organic principles of ecology, fairness, health, and care. Challenges of implementing sustainable organic practices in the Ugandan livestock sector threaten its future development, such as vectors and vector-borne diseases, organic feed insufficiency, limited education, research, and support to organic livestock production. The prospects of organic livestock development in Uganda can be enhanced with more scientific research in organic livestock production under local conditions and strengthening institutional support.

Background: Results of analyses based on veterinary records of animal disease may be prone to variation and bias, because data collection for these registers relies on different observers in different settings as well as different treatment criteria. Understanding the human influence on data collection and the decisions related to this process may help veterinary and agricultural scientists motivate observers (veterinarians and farmers) to work more systematically, which may improve data quality. This study investigates qualitative relations between two types of records: 1) 'diagnostic data' as recordings of metritis scores and 2) 'intervention data' as recordings of medical treatment for metritis and the potential influence on quality of the data., Methods: The study is based on observations in veterinary dairy practice combined with semi-structured research interviews of veterinarians working within a herd health concept where metritis diagnosis was described in detail. The observations and interviews were analysed by qualitative research methods to describe differences in the veterinarians' perceptions of metritis diagnosis (scores) and their own decisions related to diagnosis, treatment, and recording., Results: The analysis demonstrates how data quality can be affected during the diagnostic procedures, as interaction occurs between diagnostics and decisions about medical treatments. Important findings were when scores lacked consistency within and between observers (variation) and when scores were adjusted to the treatment decision already made by the veterinarian (bias). The study further demonstrates that veterinarians made their decisions at 3 different levels of focus (cow, farm, population). Data quality was influenced by the veterinarians' perceptions of collection procedures, decision making and their different motivations to collect data systematically., Conclusion: Both variation and bias were introduced into the data because of veterinarians' different perceptions of and motivations for decision making. Acknowledgement of these findings by researchers, educational institutions and veterinarians in practice may stimulate an effort to improve the quality of field data, as well as raise awareness about the importance of including knowledge about human perceptions when interpreting studies based on field data. Both recognitions may increase the usefulness of both within-herd and between-herd epidemiological analyses.

Calf mortality has remained at a high (risk approximately 7%) in Denmark, despite much knowledge disseminated to farmers. We conducted a qualitative interview to explore calf managers' perception of their own management and working situation, and how this related to calf mortality problems in their herds. Twenty-eight calf managers from herds with either no (NO) or high (HI; 17-31%) calf mortality in 2004 were included in the study. We used our judgement to create a model of the inter-relationships among the attitudes that seemed most different between the two groups of farmers. 'Flexible time,' (for activities such as management of crisis or unexpected events) was crucial; it allowed the farmer to intervene immediately at first sign of a crisis. Our interpretation suggests that focus on the farmers time planning and structure of everyday activities is, therefore, a key to understanding and solving problems related to calf disease and mortality. An important distinction between the groups was whether the calf manager had a basic belief that calf mortality is a permanent crisis that has to be expected to be present on a dairy farm. Previous experience in solving disease and mortality problems in calves had a strong positive influence on this belief. We suggest that the issues of empowerment and flexible time management be explored further to assist dairy-calf raisers.

Background: Research in herd health management solely using a quantitative approach may present major challenges to the interpretation of the results, because the humans involved may have responded to their observations based on previous experiences and own beliefs. This challenge can be met through increased awareness and dialogue between researchers and farmers or other stakeholders about the background for data collection related to management and changes in management. By integrating quantitative and qualitative research methods in a mixed methods research approach, the researchers will improve their understanding of this potential bias of the observed data and farms, which will enable them to obtain more useful results of quantitative analyses., Case Description: An example is used to illustrate the potentials of combining quantitative and qualitative approaches to herd health related data analyses. The example is based on two studies on bovine metritis. The first study was a quantitative observational study of risk factors for metritis in Danish dairy cows based on data from the Danish Cattle Database. The other study was a semi-structured interview study involving 20 practicing veterinarians with the aim to gain insight into veterinarians' decision making when collecting and processing data related to metritis., Discussion and Evaluation: The relations between risk factors and metritis in the first project supported the findings in several other quantitative observational studies; however, the herd incidence risk was highly skewed. There may be simple practical reasons for this, e.g. underreporting and differences in the veterinarians' decision making. Additionally, the interviews in the second project identified several problems with correctness and validity of data regarding the occurrence of metritis because of differences regarding case definitions and thresholds for treatments between veterinarians., Conclusion: Studies where associations between specific herd health management routines and disease outcome variables are drawn based purely on quantitative observational studies may benefit greatly by adding a qualitative perspective to the quantitative approach as illustrated and discussed in this article. The combined approach requires, besides skills and interdisciplinary collaboration, also openness, reflection and scepticism from the involved scientists, but the benefits may be extended to various contexts both in advisory service and science.

The farmer field school (FFS) is a concept for farmers' learning, knowledge exchange, and empowerment that has been developed and used in developing countries. In Denmark, a research project focusing on explicit non-antibiotic strategies involves farmers who have actively expressed an interest in phasing out antibiotics from their herds through promotion of animal health. One way of reaching this goal was to form participatory focused farmer groups in an FFS approach, which was adapted to Danish conditions and named "stable schools." Four stable schools were established and went through a 1-yr cycle with 2 visits at each of the 5 or 6 farms connected to each group. A facilitator was connected to each group whose role was to write the meeting agenda together with the host farmer, direct the meeting, and write the minutes to send to the group members after the meeting. Through group focus interviews and individual semistructured qualitative interviews of all participants, the approach of the farmers' goal-directed work toward a common goal was judged to be very valuable and fruitful and based on a common learning process. Complex farming situations were the focus of all groups and in this context, problems were identified and solutions proposed based on each farmer's individual goals. In this article, we describe the experiences of 4 stable school groups (each comprising farmers and a facilitator), and the common process of building a concept that is suitable for Danish organic dairy farming.

Within the framework of a research project investigating methods to decrease mastitis incidence, farmer groups for participatory training in a modified Farmer Field School approach were initiated in order to improve animal health and farmer knowledge in mastitis control technologies in smallholder dairy farms in the Jinja district of Uganda. Two peri-urban groups and one rural group met for common learning and training two hours per fortnight during a 12-month period, facilitated by two local extension agents together with one or two scientists from Makerere University. Farmers rotated each time between farms owned by group participants, which demanded mutual trust, openness and respect. From their own assessment the farmers felt they had improved their milk production and reduced mastitis incidence on their farms. In an evaluation workshop, they articulated how they had built up common knowledge and experience from training in systematic clinical examination of animals, evaluation of the farm environments, and identification of improvements. Much of the acquired new knowledge was about basic dairy cow management and husbandry practices. In addition, they gave examples of how they were now used as resource persons in their local communities. Principles of learning and empowerment are discussed.

Background: Quarter milk samples from cows with high risk of intramammary infection were examined to determine the prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus (SA) and penicillin resistant SA (SAr) in conventional and organic dairy herds and herds converting to organic farming in a combined longitudinal and cross-sectional study., Methods: 20 conventional herds, 18 organic herds that converted before 1995, and 19 herds converting to organic farming in 1999 or 2000 were included in the study. Herds converting to organic farming were sampled three times one year apart; the other herds were sampled once. Risk of infection was estimated based on somatic cell count, milk production, breed, age and lactation stage., Results: The high-risk cows represented about 49 % of the cows in the herds. The overall prevalence of SA and SAr among these cows was 29% (95% confidence interval: 24%-34%) and 4% (95% confidence interval: 2%-5%) respectively. The prevalence of penicillin resistance among SA infected cows was 12% (95% confidence interval: 6%-19%) when calculated from the first herd visits. No statistically significant differences were observed in the prevalence of SAr or the proportion of isolates resistant to penicillin between herd groups., Conclusion: The proportion of isolates resistant to penicillin was low compared to studies in other countries except Norway and Sweden. Based on the low prevalence of penicillin resistance of SA, penicillin should still be the first choice of antimicrobial agent for treatment of bovine intramammary infection in Denmark.

A cross-sectional observational study with repeated observations was conducted on 16 Danish dairy farms to quantify the influence of observer, parity, time (stage in lactation) and farm on variables routinely selected for inclusion in clinical protocols, thereby to enable a more valid comparison of udder health between different herds. During 12 months, participating herds were visited 5 times by project technicians, who examined 20 cows and scored the selected clinical variables. The estimates of effect on variables were derived from a random regression model procedure. Statistical analyses revealed that, although estimates for occurrence of several the variables, e.g. degree of oedema, varied significantly between observers, the effects on many of these estimates were similar in size. Almost all estimates for occurrences of variables were significantly affected either parity and lactation stage, or by both e.g. udder tissue consistency. Some variables, e.g. mange, had high estimates for the farm component, and others e.g. teat skin quality had a high individual component. Several of the variables, e.g. wounds on warts, had a high residual component indicating that a there still was a major part of the variation in data, which was unexplained. It was concluded that most of the variables were relevant for implementation in herd health management, but that adjustments need to be made to improve reliability.

Between May 2002 and February 2003 a longitudinal survey was carried out in Mbale and Sironko Districts of Eastern Uganda to determine the influence of agro-ecological zones (AEZ) and grazing systems on tick infestation patterns and incidence of East Coast Fever (ECF) in bovine calves. The study area was stratified into AEZ (lowland, midland and upland) and grazing systems {zero grazing (ZG), restricted-outdoor grazing (ROG) and communal grazing (CG)}, whose strata had previously been shown to influence the prevalence of ECF, babesiosis and anaplasmosis. One hundred and eighty-five smallholder dairy farms with a total of 198 calves of both sexes, between the ages of 1 day and 6 weeks, were purposively selected from the AEZ-grazing system strata. Nine dynamic cohorts (11-51 calves in each) of these calves were examined and sampled monthly. Ticks infesting the calves were counted from one side of the animal body and categorized into the different species, sex and feeding status. Sera were collected at recruitment and monthly thereafter and antibodies against Theileria parva, T. mutans, Babesia bigemina, B. bovis and Anaplasma marginale were measured using ELISA. Tick challenge (total and specific) varied with AEZ and grazing system. The risk of infection with T. parva was higher in the lowland zone compared to the upland zone (hazard ratio (HR)=2.59; 95% CI: 1.00-6.34). The risk of infection with T. parva was higher in the CG system than the ZG system (HR=10.00; 95% CI: 3.61-27.92). The incidence risk for sero-conversion, over the 10 months study period, was 62, 16 and 9% in the lowland, midland and upland zones, respectively. Ninety-eight percent of the calves in lowland-CG stratum sero-converted by the age of 6 months, while 56 and 8% did so in the lowland-ROG and the lowland-ZG stratum, respectively. The results of this study show the need to consider farm circumstances and the variation in ECF risk, both spatially and temporally when designing control strategies for ECF.

Promotion of animal health and well-being at the individual animal and herd level is an important goal in organic farming. At the same time, chemical products affecting the natural balance among living organisms are prohibited in all areas of the organic farm. From an animal welfare point of view, however, no animal must suffer. Therefore, veterinary drugs are allowed under the European Union's regulations for organic farming, despite the fact that they are powerful cell toxins affecting both pathogenic and necessary bacteria, and as such in organic terminology, are regarded as "chemical" or "artificial" products. In this article, we present and discuss interviews with 12 Danish organic dairy producers who claim that minimized use or nonuse of antimicrobial drugs is an explicit goal. The dairy producers were at different levels with regard to reduced antimicrobial treatment. An explicit strategy of no antimicrobial treatments is based primarily on a long-term effort to improve herd health, and secondarily, on finding alternative treatments for diseased animals. Improved hygiene, outdoor access, use of nursing cows, and blinding of chronic mastitis quarters were the main techniques in developing a strategy of not using antimicrobial treatments in the herd by dairy producers. Producers' perception of disease changed from something unavoidable to a disturbing break in the daily rhythm that often could have been avoided. Change toward a nonantimicrobial strategy was gradual and stepwise. All dairy producers in this study desired to preserve the possibility of using antimicrobial drugs in emergencies.

A cross-sectional study was conducted to explore the applicability of systematic clinical examinations of udders as an additional tool for the evaluation of udder health status on dairy farms. During 2000, each of the 16 dairy farms was visited 5 times; 20 cows per farm were chosen at random at each visit for clinical udder examination immediately after milking. The clinical examination included both pathological and morphological variables. One examination per cow was included in the analysis (n = 707 cows). Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed in 3 steps. First, 19 variables characterizing udder and teats were analyzed (PCA 1). Second, the variables parity and stage of lactation were included (PCA 2). Finally, somatic cell count (SCC) and milk yield (PCA 3) were included. The PCA resulted in 4 components that explained 30% of the variation of the data: 1) small udder, 2) distressed udder, 3) mastitis udder, and 4) soiled udder. Variables with high positive correlation to the "small udder" were small udder shape, short teats, and first parity. Impaired teat surface, hard udder texture, and a long udder shape were related to the "distressed udder." The "mastitis udder" was characterized by the clinical variables asymmetry between front quarters, asymmetry between hind quarters, knotty tissue, and acute clinical mastitis. Reduced milk yield and high SCC were related to the "mastitis udder," whereas low SCC was related to the "small udder." The "soiled udder" was related to early lactation. Including this information in the assessment of udder health may be of substantial value for data analysis in farms with suspected under-reporting of clinical mastitis.

Between August and October 2000, a cross-sectional study was conducted in smallholder dairy farms in Mbale District, Uganda to assess the prevalence of ticks and tick-borne diseases under different grazing systems and agro-ecological zones and understand the circumstances under which farmers operated. A questionnaire was administered to obtain information on dairy farm circumstances and practices. A total of 102 farms were visited and sera and ticks were collected from 478 animals. Sero-prevalence of tick-borne diseases was determined using an enzyme-linked immunoassay. Acaricides were used indiscriminately but the intensity of their use varied with the grazing system and zone. Cattle from different farms mixed for various reasons. During the dry seasons farmers have to get additional fodder from outside their farms that can result in importation of ticks. The prevalence of ticks and serum antibodies to tick-borne infections differed across the grazing systems and zones. The highest serum antibody prevalence (>60%) was recorded in the lowland zone under the free range and tethering grazing systems. The lowest tick challenge and serum antibody levels (<50%) were recorded in the midland and upland zones under a zero-grazing system. These findings suggest that endemic stability to East Coast Fever, babesiosis and anaplasmosis is most likely to have existed in the lowland zone, particularly, under the tethering and free-range grazing systems. Also, endemic stability for babesiosis existed in the upland zones. Endemic instability for East Coast Fever existed in the midland and upland zones. These structured observational studies are instrumental in planning of control strategies for ticks and tick borne diseases since production systems and the cattle population at high risk of the diseases in the district have been identified.

Production and disease data from 17,488 lactations in 48 Danish organic dairy herds from 1997 to 2001 were analyzed to obtain estimates on the effect of somatic cell counts (SCC) and mastitis treatment on milk production. A multilevel three-parameter piecewise random coefficients linear model with energy-corrected milk (ECM) as dependent variable and herd, lactation, and test days as levels, was used to model the lactation curve. Covariates related to production, SCC, veterinary treatments, and reproductive performance in the previous lactation as well as information on other diseases in the current lactation were included to describe the production capacity of the individual cow. The average daily milk production at herd level was 20.8, 24.2, and 25.8 kg of ECM/d in first, second, and third or later lactation. The estimates for production losses were on average 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4 kg of ECM/d in first, second, and third or later lactation with each twofold increase in SCC between 100,000 and 1,500,000 cells/ml. The effect varied with the stage of lactation and was nonsignificant around 60 d postpartum and highest at the end of the lactation. The production losses in cows treated for mastitis varied with parity and stage of lactation and were modified by the SCC after treatment. For a cow in third lactation with a SCC below 100,000 cells/ ml before treatment at days in milk = 15, the predicted loss was 435 kg of ECM, including a loss of 135 kg of ECM because of higher SCC compared with the level before treatment. Most of the variation in production related to SCC and mastitis was at the lactation level, and no significant differences were found between herds grouped according to milk production level, SCC, or prevalence of mastitis treatment.

In nine organic swine herds, faecal excretion and pasture contamination by parasite eggs/larvae were studied in a period from March to October 1999. It was shown that the organic pigs were infected with Ascaris suum (28% of weaners, 33% of fatteners, 4% of sows), Trichuris suis (4% of weaners, 13% of fatteners, <1% of sows) and Oesophagostomum spp. (5% of weaners, 14% of fatteners, 20% of sows) whereas no infections with Hyostrongylus rubidus, Metastrongylus spp. or Strongyloides ransomi were detected. Moreover, no pigs showed clinical signs of infestations with scabies or lice. In the soil samples, very few Trichuris eggs were found throughout the season, whereas Ascaris eggs were found in 14% of the soil samples from sow pastures and in 35% from slaughter pig pastures, with the first infective eggs being recorded in July and the maximum number in August. Infective Oesophagostomum larvae were found in the grass samples in increasing numbers from May to October. Single herd cases of exceptionally high parasite infection levels are described in relation to herd management procedures.

A qualitative research study was conducted to describe and analyze farmers' perspectives on their own choices regarding decisions to have cows treated for mastitis. Through qualitative research interviews of 16 Danish dairy farmers, four levels of the decision-making process used by farmers to decide whether or not to treat a cow with antibiotics were identified. Those levels were: 1) symptom level (seriousness of the mastitis case), 2) cow level (to the extent a cow fulfilled goals of the farmer and the herd), 3) herd level (the situation of the herd, e.g., in relation to milk quota), and 4) level of alternatives (whether the farmer regards such practices as blinding of teats or homoeopathy as serious alternatives to antibiotic treatment). All four levels could be recognized in all herds, but with differing weights and relative importance across herds. Directions of different possibilities within each level also varied among farmers. By identifying those four levels, a model for understanding the farmers' choices is provided. This provides background for dialogue with each farmer about choices in the context of each specific herd. It also provides insight into implications of mastitis treatments for effective treatment versus issues of antibiotic resistance when discussing choices on a more general level. Communication and understanding between farmers and their veterinarians and cattle-oriented advisors is essential. Farmers were shown to be coherent in their choices of treatment, but their decisions often seemed to differ from normal veterinary recommendations. Such differences have to be understood and implemented into effective decisions for the whole farm.

This study examined the possibilities of using clinical parameters related to the bovine udder for characterisation of udder health. Five clinicians performed systematic clinical recordings of udder health at 3 visits to 4 dairy herds. Several of the clinical parameters were scored on an ordinal scale. The agreement between clinicians was compared using kappa statistics. Factor analysis was used to identify udder types. The clinical evaluations showed substantial variation among clinicians. Parameters that were not directly related to pathological conditions showed the highest variation e.g. length of the claws, teat shape and hardness of the udder parenchyma. On the other hand, evaluation of pathological parameters such as nodes in the udder, skin lesions and oedema showed good agreement between clinicians. Udder types identified by means of factor analysis were found to be suitable for characterisation of udder health. Especially one factor related to dry quarters and udder asymmetry showed a more consistent relationship to milk yield than traditionally applied udder health parameters such as treatment rate and cell count. It is concluded that there is a considerable need for increased efforts among clinicians in order to standardise clinical recordings. It is further concluded that certain combinations of extended clinical recordings have significant perspectives for future characterisation of udder health.

In traditional housing systems for dairy herds, calves are very often placed in single boxes and fed milk from a bucket, which may lead to abnormal behaviour. In organic herds, for whom the aim is optimal animal welfare, there is interest in using suckling systems, where the calves have the opportunity to perform natural social behaviour. The success of introducing a calf to a nurse cow is expected to depend on the calf's suckling experience, as well as the introduction procedure. A two-factorial experiment was carried out with the objective to investigate how calves are best introduced to the nurse cow during (the colostrum period (defined as the first 3 days postpartum). The calf was either with its own mother or fed colostrum from a teat-bucket. The length of the introduction period, where the calf was alone with the nurse cow before being introduced to a larger group of cows and calves, was either 1 or 2 days. The experiment showed that calves who had suckled colostrum from their own mother, suckled the nurse cow more and for longer periods than the teat-bucket fed calves (P=0.0007 on day 1 and P=0.012 on day 2). Mothered calves licked and rubbed their nurse more (16.7 times versus 7.0 times; S.E.M.+/-2.3; P<0.05) and these calves cross-suckled less than teat-bucket fed calves (19.9min versus 54.5min; S.E.M.+/-14.9; P=0.03).

Medication is an important focus area in organic animal husbandry. The combination of goals relating to improved animal welfare and reduced use of chemicals in general creates a common wish to reduce medication. Based on data from current Danish research projects in organic dairy farming, one specific organic medication pattern or policy cannot be described. The disease treatment pattern is influenced by many factors, e.g. the interaction with colleagues, veterinarians and agricultural advisors. No significant difference could be found with regard to incidence of mastitis treatments or somatic cell counts in 27 organic and 57 conventional herds. A marked tendency to shorter treatment periods in relation to mastitis treatments was described for organic farms in comparison with conventional farms (1.9 days versus 3.2 days (5 organic and 7 conventional herds)). In a study of development of health advisory service in organic herds, the dialogue between farmer, veterinarian and agricultural cattle advisor changed the treatment pattern markedly during a period of 6 months. Among important future challenges for veterinarians in organic farming is pointed at the constructive, open, and critical interaction with the single organic farmer as well as the organic animal husbandry system in general.

Records of claw trimmings were analysed in seven organic and six conventional Danish herds (a total of 974 cows). The housing systems represented were tie stall systems, loose housing system with slatted floor (one organic herd), and deep litter systems (deep straw bedding). Occurrence of sole disorders was analysed separately for cows in first lactation and for cows in later lactations. Three different responses (acute haemorrhage, sole ulcer in one leg and sole ulcer in two or more legs) were analysed using three binomial logistic regression analyses for each group. Herd analysed as a fixed effect was a strong risk factor for all kinds of sole ulcer. Lactation stage was a risk factor for acute haemorrhage in both groups of cows, and for sole ulcer in first parity cows. In general, there was a strong positive association between the period 61-120 d post partum and the presence of sole disorders. Breed was associated with acute haemorrhage in cows in second and later parities, and sole ulcer in one leg only in first parity cows in an interaction with lactation stage in both conditions. Danish Friesian cows were strongly associated with sole disorder, although the combination of lactation stage from 61 to 120 d post partum in cows of other dual purpose breeds was positively associated with the presence of sole ulcer in one leg only in first parity cows. The time of year for claw trimming was a risk factor for acute haemorrhage in first parity cows, with the period from December to January most strongly associated with acute haemorrhage. Previous disease treatment was a risk factor for sole ulcer in two or more legs in second and later parities. Udder related disorders and disorders other than reproductive problems were positively associated with the occurrence of sole ulcer. Body weight at calving was associated with acute haemorrhage in cows in second and subsequent parities. Body weight lower than the mean herd level by > 50 kg was negatively associated with acute haemorrhage.

Danish organic dairy production is characterized by a low input of antibiotics for udder treatment and a high input of other mastitis control procedures. A study was conducted in 14 organic dairy herds with the objectives of obtaining a comprehensive description of clinical mastitis cases and identifying characteristic patterns in these results. Clinical signs, inflammatory reactions and microbiological identifications were obtained from 367 cases of clinical mastitis occurring over 18 months. Cow characteristics and preincident values such as milk yield and somatic cell count were obtained for each cow. Signs of previous udder inflammation were present in two-thirds of the clinical mastitis cases. Severe local inflammatory reactions were found in 21% of the cases and some indication of generalized signs such as fever and reduced appetite were found in 35% of the cases. Logistic regression analyses were performed based on the results of an initial (exploratory) multiple correspondence analysis. Coliform mastitis (6% of the cases) was rarely preceded by pathogen isolation or inflammatory reactions in the same quarter. Coliform mastitis cases usually occurred in one quarter only. Escherichia coli infections were typically (truly) acute cases. Bacteriologically negative mastitis (20% of the cases) showed strong similarities with clinical coliform mastitis. Staphylococcus aureus cases (18% of the cases) occurred most frequently in late lactation or around drying-off. Prior isolation of Staph. aureus and slight decreases in milk yield were two factors that interacted but both were strongly and positively related to clinical Staph. aureus. Staph. aureus mastitis typically had a subclinical debut, and increasing degrees and duration of inflammation decreased shedding of this pathogen. Streptococcus dysgalactiae (9% of the cases) mastitis was typically persistent virulent and manifest in periods of lower cow resistance. More patterns of subclinical and clinical Str. uberis mastitis (23% of the cases) seemed to be present.