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We have analysed wild hops collected widely from the Northern Hemisphere, assessing the genetic diversity and the geographical distribution of haplotypes, to investigate the evolution and phylogeny of hops, Humulus lupulus. The haplotypes were characterized by the nuclear ribosomal DNA spacer region (length and DNA sequence) and chloroplast DNA noncoding regions (DNA sequences). The results indicated that primary divergence into European (including Caucasus and Altai hops), and Asian-North American types, was 1.05+/-0.28 to 1.27+/-0.30 million years ago. Although an Eastern boundary for European nuclear haplotype distribution was unclear due to the ambiguous origin of Northern Chinese samples, the European hop group showed a wide geographical distribution across Eurasia from the Altai region to Portugal. The low genetic variation in this group suggested rapid and recent expansion. The North American hop group showed high diversity, and is considered to include hops that have migrated from Asia. Japanese and Chinese hops were identified as genetically distinct. This study has shown that wild hops in each growing region are genetically differentiated with considerable genetic diversity. It gives insights into the evolution and domestication of hops that are discussed.

Proteases from Cynara cardunculus L. are used in cheese-making. The growth of C. cardunculus cell suspension culture and the production of proteases and phenols were studied in sucrose-limited chemostat cultures at two dilution rates. Biomass yields and biomass and protease productivities in chemostat cultures were compared with those in batch cultures. C. cardunculus cells showed a high ability to adapt to chemostat conditions. Phenolic production was not observed in the steady-state cultures of C. cardunculus cell cultures in contrast to batch cultures. Protease production was linked to the exponential growth phase and was higher and more stable in sucrose-limited chemostats than in batch culture.

Yarrow, commonly called soldier’s woundwort or herb of the good Lord, owes some of its common names to its known pharmacological, antihemorrhagic, and sedative properties (Font Quer 1981). Dioscorides went even further in the applications of this plant; it can be used not only as a vulnerary, but also has tonic, antispasmodic, antipyretic, and antimycotic properties. Also, the scientific name of the plant is related to its antihemorrhagic action. According to the Greek legend, during the Trojan War (ca. 1250 B.c.), Achilles healed the wounds of King Telephos with yarrow; thus, the name Achillea, millefolium indicates that the leaves are finely divided.

Since antiquity, Euphorbia species have been used for multiple purposes. The leaves and branchlets of Euphorbia lancifolia Schlecht were used by Mayam Indians to produce a tea named Ixbut which is reported to act as a galactogogue, increasing the flow or volume of milk in postpartem women (Rosengarten 1978; Schultes 1987). Some species have been used for treatment of cancer, tumors, and warts for more than 2000 years (Kupchan et al. 1976). This is the case for E. fischeriana Steud., that was used in traditional Chinese medicine as an antitumor drug (Schroeder et al. 1980). Medicinal uses of Euphorbia species include treatment of skin diseases, warts, intestinal parasites, and gonorrhea. Table 1 summarizes the uses in folk medicine.

The production of cheese involves two stages:1) the enzymatic hydrolysis of K casein in which its micelle is desestabilized and 2) its subsequent aggregation. In most cases, this operation is carried out by microbial proteases, being used also, animal and plant enzymes.

Plant rennets are used in Portugal for the small-scale manufacture of certain varieties of cheese, namely “Serra” and “Serpa”. In the traditional preparation of these types of cheese the clotting stage is induced by immersing the flowers of the native Compositae Cynara cardunculus or Silybum marianum in the milk vats. However, the flowers are, by themselves, a potential source of microbial contamination of the product. This problem could be overcome by plant cell culture. Previous work demonstrated that in vitro cultivated cells of both species present clotting activity (Fevereiro et al. 1986, Esquivel et al. 1986), no clotting activity being found in the supernatant (Fonseca et al. 1987).

The species Cynara cardunculus is traditionally used in Portugal to produce tasteful and valuable cheese.