Search

Laser-driven Hohlraums filled with gas at lower densities (2 and P4 drive asymmetry swings caused by the drift of the laser spots were essentially zeroed out by employing temporal beam phasing between cones of beams [Turner et al., Phys. Plasmas 7, 333 (2000)]. The results also indicate an improved coupling efficiency of ∼30% compared to an earlier design using higher density filled Hohlraums and pave the way for revisiting low-adiabat, high convergence drives using CH ablators.

Compound parabolic concentrator (CPC) targets are utilized at the National Ignition Facility Advanced Radiographic Capability (NIF-ARC) laser to enhance the acceleration of electrons and production of high energy photons, for laser durations of 10 ps and energies up to 2.4 kJ. A large enhancement of mean electron energy (>2 ×) and photon brightness (>10×) is found with CPC targets compared to flat targets. Using multiple diagnostic techniques at different spatial locations and scaling by gold activation spatial data, photon spectra are characterized for [Formula: see text] MeV. Beam width and pointing variations are given. The efficient production of MeV photons at [Formula: see text] W/cm2 with CPCs is observed, with doses of >10 rad in air at 1 m for [Formula: see text] MeV; these exceed those previously reported with laser-driven sources. Using this source, sub-mm resolution radiographs are generated through large areal density radiograph objects. These results are promising for the development of bright MeV x-ray and particle sources on Petawatt class laser systems.

Previously, hydrodynamic simulations [Clark et al., Phys. Plasmas 23, 072707 (2016)] suggested that precisely tailoring the capsule ablator thickness (shimming) could counterbalance cylindrical Hohlraum Legendre P4 drive asymmetries at the capsule in laser indirect drive implosions. As a result, the stagnated deuterium–tritium (DT) fuel areal density P4 asymmetry is reduced, potentially resulting in a nuclear yield increase. Inflight radiographs of various level of shimmed capsules with plastic (CH) ablators showed that shims can indeed control the in-flight capsule shell P4 asymmetry, with a linear sensitivity to shim amplitude that is close to analytic estimates and simulations. Furthermore, the stagnated DT fuel areal density P4 asymmetry inferred from downscattered neutron imaging was reduced when the capsule shim was applied, in agreement with simulations matching the inflight shell asymmetry. A nuclear yield improvement via shim was not observed, as predicted, likely due to implosion instabilities and as built capsule shim deviations from an ideal P4 shape.

Achieving a high conversion efficiency into relativistic electrons is central to short-pulse laser application and fundamentally relies on creating interaction regions with intensities ${\gg}10^{18}$~W/cm$^2$. Small focal length optics are typically employed to achieve this goal; however, this solution is impractical for large kJ-class systems that are constrained by facility geometry, debris concerns, and component costs. We fielded target-mounted compound parabolic concentrators to overcome these limitations and achieved nearly an order of magnitude increase to the conversion efficiency and more than tripled electron temperature compared to flat targets. Particle-in-cell simulations demonstrate that plasma confinement within the cone and formation of turbulent laser fields that develop from cone wall reflections are responsible for the improved laser-to-target coupling. {These passive target components can be used to improve the coupling efficiency for all high-intensity short-pulse laser applications, particularly at large facilities with long focal length optics., 6 pages, 5 figures

The challenge of fabricating a shock convergence target is embedding the metal particle at the center of a plastic bead with ≤10-µm concentricity between the metal particle and plastic bead. Two types of the metal particle in plastic bead target were fabricated for the Ultra-Strong-Spherical Shock campaign: (1) a metal particle 50 µm in diameter embedded in the center of a 430-µm-diameter plastic bead and (2) the same metal particle and a 430-µm-diameter plastic bead with an embedded conical shield with the metal particle located at the tip of the conical shield. This paper describes the fabrication of these two target types; it includes the selection of the plastic bead material, how the metal particle was embedded in the plastic material, how the metal particle was attached to the end of the cone, how the plastic material was machined into a bead 430 µm in diameter, and how X-ray images were used to establish the particle position in the plastic material and how it was used for final metrology t...

Capsule drive in National Ignition Facility indirect-drive implosions is generated by X-ray illumination from cylindrical hohlraums. The cylindrical hohlraum geometry is axially symmetric but not s...

Double-shell inertial confinement fusion targets represent a unique platform for achieving ignition. They consist of a low-Z outer ablator, a high-Z inner pusher layer, and a low-density foam layer sandwiched in between. There is the possibility that double-shell targets may achieve ignition at lower ion temperatures due to the containment of radiation and conduction losses as well as requiring smaller convergence ratios. We have explored using magnetron sputtering to make the inner high-Z pusher layers and have demonstrated a W-Cr bilayer inner-shell design. An Al-Be mixture was explored as one of the outer ablator materials. This material takes advantage of Al X-ray M-band absorption to reduce preheating and still retain Be high-ablation speeds. Typical commercial Al-Be materials suffer from phase separation. However, by using magnetron sputtering we have been able to demonstrate homogeneous Al-Be ablator coatings. The sputtered material forms with nanosized grains and has demonstrated excellent...

Reconciling the experimental and system requirements during the development of a new target system is one of the most challenging tasks in the design and engineering of targets used in the National...

Hydrodynamic instability growth and its effects on capsule implosion performance are being studied at the National Ignition Facility (NIF). Experimental results have shown that low-mode instabiliti...

Complex and precise research targets are required for the inertial confinement fusion (ICF) experiments conducted at the National Ignition Facility. During the National Ignition Campaign (NIC) the ...

At National Ignition Facility (NIF), yield amplification due to alpha particle heating approached ~3 in the highest performing inertial confinement fusion (ICF) implosions, while yield amplification of ~15-30 is needed for ignition. Hydrodynamic instabilities are a major factor in degradation of implosions while understanding and mitigation of the instabilities are critical to achieving ignition. This article describes recent and planned hydrodynamic instability experiments with several focused platforms that have been developed to directly measure these instabilities in all phases of ICF implosions. Measurements of ripple-shock generation at OMEGA laser have indicated initial seeds for the instabilities in three ablators - plastic (CH), beryllium, and high-density carbon (HDC). Hydrodynamic Growth Radiography (HGR) platform was used to measure instability growth at the ablation front in the acceleration phase of implosions. This platform used pre-imposed 2-D perturbations for growth factor measurements at different perturbation wavelengths and was also used to measure growth of “native roughness” modulations, fill tubes, and capsule support membranes or “tents”. Also, in the acceleration phase several new experimental platforms have been or are being developed to measure instability growth at the ablator-ice interface. In the deceleration phase of implosions, “self-emission” and “self-backlighting” platforms were developed to measure perturbations near peak compression. This article reviews recent progress and results.

lthough the overall function of a campaign’s primary target design may remain unchanged, the components and structure often evolve from one shot day to the next to better meet experimental goals. The target fabrication engineer’s involvement in this evolution can be important for advising modifications in order to improve and simplify assembly at the same time. Highly complex targets are constructed by General Atomics (GA) for astrophysics experiments conducted by the University of Chicago at the OMEGA laser facility. Several novel target components are fabricated, precision-assembled, and extensively measured in support of this campaign, and have evolved over the last three years to improve both the science and assembly. Examples include unique laser machined polyimide grids to enhance plasma mixing at target center, precision micromachined cylindrical shields that also act as component spacers, drawn glass target supports to suspend physics packages at critical distances, and tilted pinholes for collimated proton radiography. Target component fabrication and evolution details for this turbulent dynamics (TDYNO) campaign are presented, along with precision-assembly techniques, metrology methods, and considerations for future TDYNO experiments on OMEGA.

SUMMARY Sanitizing hatching eggs may reduce the chances that a broiler flock will become colonized with Salmonella and reduce the numbers of other microorganisms, such as Enterobacteriaceae, that can depress hatchability. An experiment was conducted to determine if a quaternarybiguanide sanitizer applied as foam or spray would reduce Enterobacteriaceae or Salmonella naturally occurring on broiler hatching eggs. The sanitizer was applied to buggies of 5,040 eggs the day before set (one buggy/treatment at each of 2 settings). Treated eggs were compared with untreated controls. Foam application lowered Enterobacteriaceae prevalence at set (0 vs. 18%) and transfer (5 vs. 28%); spraying was effective only when eggs were set (2.5 vs. 11%). At transfer spray, treated and control eggs were 19% Enterobacteriaceae-positive. Five Salmonella-positives were recorded during the study. No indication that the sanitizer was effective in reducing Salmonella prevalence when applied as foam was observed (3/120 vs. 1/120). No Salmonella were recovered from spray-treated eggs. No statistically significant difference for Salmonella prevalence was noted, but with such a low rate of recovery it is difficult to draw a firm conclusion. However, the sanitizer applied as foam was effective at decreasing the prevalence of Enterobacteriaceae (a family of bacteria that includes Salmonella and Escherichia coli), and is present more often and in higher numbers than Salmonella.

SUMMARY Salmonella can penetrate the shells and shell membranes of hatching eggs, and this can critically affect final product contamination levels (processed broiler carcass). There are numerous published studies on the effectiveness of chemical disinfectants for hatching eggs. The purpose of this study was to provide information allowing the reader to accurately assess published works on chemical efficacy to reduce Salmonella on hatching eggs. Three methods of egg inoculation were used: immersion, fecal smear, and droplet. After inoculation, 2 methods of sanitizer application were used: egg immersion (30 s) and spraying (10 s). When an immersion inoculum was used at a high level (107 cells/mL), it was difficult to demonstrate any reduction in Salmonella contamination of eggs with either chemical (hydrogen peroxide or quaternary ammonium), regardless of the application method. When a fecal smear inoculation was used (103 to 107 cells/mL), hydrogen peroxide treatment reduced the number of Salmonella-positive eggs with spray or immersion application; quaternary ammonium was less effective and showed no advantage over water. Droplet inoculation was the mildest of the methods used. With droplet inoculation (105Salmonella cells), immersion and spray application of chemicals resulted in reductions in Salmonella prevalence. In fact, when using the drop inoculation method, slight reductions were noted even when water was used as the treatment. Readers should pay close attention to the method and levels of bacterial inoculation as well as the method of chemical application before deciding on the efficacy of a sanitizing treatment. Experimental methodologies may affect results as much as the chemical composition of the sanitizer being analyzed.

The fast ignition concept is a proposed method to reach fusion by two separate processes. The task of the first process is the compression of fuel and the second is the ignition of the compressed fuel by a rapid and directed energy deposition. One delivery method of this energy can be in the form of focused proton beams and this type of fast ignition target will be discussed. The target designs consisted of gold and plastic cones with a curved proton-generating surface (aluminum) within the cone and very close to the tip. The challenges of the given target specifications led to a new cone design consisting of a cone base and cone tip made in two pieces with the proton generating surface sandwiched between. The fabrication of these targets consisted of several steps and processes that included making PAMS shell mandrels, sputter coating deposition, electroplating, precision machining, chemical etching, and target assembly.

SUMMARY A study was conducted to determine the effect of water provision to chicks before placement on performance and the incidence of unabsorbed yolk sacs. To accomplish this, a device was used that was designed to deliver water to chicks in chick baskets during holding at the hatchery and transportation to the growout house. Commercial chicks were obtained from the hatchery and held for either 24 or 48 h with or without access to water before placement. Chicks were then distributed into floor pens with ad libitum access to feed and water. At 6 wk of age, broilers were processed, and intestines were evaluated for presence or absence of an unabsorbed yolk sac and intestinal breaking strength. Body weight at placement was 2 to 6 g greater for chicks given access to water; however, this difference was not observed at any other time during the growout. Water provision during holding had no affect on feed consumption, mortality, or the birds’ ability to completely absorb the yolk sac during the 6 wk growout. Incidence of unabsorbed yolk sacs in 6 wk old birds ranged from 15 to 28%. Moreover, presence or absence of an unabsorbed yolk sac had no effect on intestinal breaking strength. Data from the present study demonstrates that providing chicks with water before placement does not influence performance, intestinal breaking strength, or the incidence of unabsorbed yolk sacs.

SUMMARY In the developing avian embryo, the main energy source is the yolk. Toward the end of the incubation period, the remaining yolk sac is internalized into the abdominal cavity. At hatch, the remaining yolk comprises 20% of the chick’s BW and provides the nutrients needed for maintenance. Posthatch, chicks rapidly initiate the transition from yolk dependence to the utilization of exogenous feed. However, at present, it is not known what types of bacteria are found to be associated with unabsorbed yolk sacs from market-age broilers. For Experiment 1, one hundred 6-wk-old defeathered broiler carcasses were obtained from a commercial processing facility during each of 3 visits. In the second experiment, one hundred 8-wk-old defeathered broiler carcasses were obtained from a different commercial processing plant on 4 separate occasions. For both experiments, each carcass was aseptically opened and inspected for the presence of an unabsorbed yolk sac. Three to 5 carcasses containing a free-floating yolk sac (within the abdominal cavity) and the yolk stalk (without a yolk sac) and 3 to 5 carcasses containing an attached yolk and yolk stalk from each repetition were randomly selected and analyzed for levels and types of total aerobic bacteria (APC), Enterobacteriaceae (ENT), and for the presence of Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella serovars. The APC ranged from log 3.3 to >log 6.0, and the ENT ranged from log 2.8 to >log 6.0. Staphylococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp. were the predominant organisms in APC, whereas Escherichia coli and Hafnia alvei were found to comprise the ENT. Campylobacter spp. was found in 29% of the yolk stalks, 32% of the attached yolk sacs, and 13% of the free-floating yolk sacs. All Campylobacter isolates were determined to be Campylobacter jejuni, except for 1 attached yolk and yolk stalk, which was Campylobacter coli. Salmonella serovars were found in 26% of the yolk stalks, 48% of the attached yolk sacs, and 23% of the free-floating yolk sacs, and the majority of Salmonella isolates were Salmonella Typhimurium. The significance of these bacterial reservoirs and carcass contamination during processing is yet to be determined.

Background: Clearance of the cervical spine after blunt trauma remains controversial in patients with normal radiologic evaluation. Methods: Blunt trauma patients with midline boney cervical tenderness and plain films that disclose no abnormalities and computed tomography (CT) scans were entered into a care pathway for spinal clearance using the Bolster or active range-of-motion (AROM) flexion/extension techniques. The quality of films between the two techniques was then compared. Results: In all, 159 patients entered the pathway with 14 patients (9%) unable to complete the examination secondary to pain. The Bolster was used in 129 patients (89%) and AROM was used in 16 (11%). The total range of motion was significantly better with AROM at 51.4 ± 19.4 degrees of motion compared with 32.0 ± 13.0 degrees with the Bolster (p ≤ 0.05). The most distal level visualized was not different between groups with 6.6 ± 0.8 cervical vertebrae visualized on average in the Bolster group and 6.8 ± 0.7 in the AROM group. Positive findings occurred in five patients (3.4%) in the Bolster group. Conclusion: The incidence of occult cervical injury in patients with boney cervical pain despite normal plain films and CT scans in this study was 3.4%. The AROM technique has better total range of motion than the Bolster, although results of the Bolster technique remain within acceptable standards. The present care pathway appears to be an effective screening tool for evaluation of this population of patients. Additional evaluation of the obtunded patient is necessary before broad implementation of this technique.

Fast ignition is a concept that is being actively investigated in the HED community. The fast ignition targets described here are highly precise targets composed of a small glow discharge polymer (GDP) shell (∼860 μm diameter) mounted on a gold hyperboloid tipped cone. The process of creating these targets is composed of several steps. The first step consists of machining a copper cone that is then plated with a layer of gold approximately 120 μm thick. Next, a hole is machined in a hollow GDP shell that will later be mounted on the gold gone. After the hole of this shell has been measured, the coated cone is machined to shape and to include a shelf so that the shell will sit at the desired location in relation to the tip of the cone. Finally, the copper mandrel is etched away from the gold and the target is assembled with the shell glued into place. At every step of this process, parts must be made and kept within tight specifications to meet the target requirements, not the least of which is that after assembly the shell center must be a specified distance from the gold cone tip with a tolerance of less than 10 μm.

The fabrication of high-density carbon–carbon composite by integrating mesophase injection and in situ transformation methods in different processing cycles was examined. Non-rigidized preform disks 30 mm thick and 68 mm in diameter were rigidized by an initial in situ transformation cycle to an average density of 0.92 g/cm3 after carbonization. The rigidized preforms were subsequently densified by 1–3 cycles of injection with the AR mesophase pitch. After each injection cycle, the flow-oriented mesophase matrix was stabilized and carbonized to 1150 °C. The composites from each injection cycle were further densified by a final in situ cycle. A final density of nearly 2 g/cm3 was attained after three injection cycles and a final in situ cycle. All the cycles except the third injection required only ambient or very moderate pressures.

SUMMARY Varying levels (10 5 to 10 7 /egg) of Salmonella Typhimurium were inoculated onto fertile hatching eggs by immersion. After this, the inoculated eggs were untreated (control), water treated, hydrogen peroxide (1.5%) treated, or Timsen treated (n-alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride as a commercial bactericide-fungicide). Hydrogen peroxide was superior to Timsen as an egg treatment to eliminate artificially inoculated Salmonella from fertile eggs, but one-third of the treated eggs remained Salmonella positive. This study demonstrates how difficult it is to eliminate Salmonella that contaminate fertile hatching eggs. Until a more effective system or process is devised and commercially implemented, Salmonella and other organisms will continue to pass from one generation to the next through the fertile egg.

When used with 1.06-mm beryllium (Be) capsules on the National Ignition Facility, gold hohlraums with the inner diameter of 5.75 mm and helium gas fill density of 1.6 mg/cm3 exhibit significant drive degradation due to laser energy backscatter (of order 14%–17%) and “missing” X-ray drive energy (about 32% during the main pulse). Also, hard to simulate cross-beam energy transfer (CBET) must be used to control the implosion symmetry. Larger, 6.72-mm hohlraums with fill densities ≤0.6 mg/cm3 generally offer improved drive efficiency, reduced hot-electron preheat, and better control of the implosion symmetry without CBET. Recently, we carried out an exploratory campaign to evaluate performance of 1.06-mm Be capsules in such hohlraums and determine optimal hohlraum parameters. Specifically, we performed a hohlraum fill-density scan with a three-shock, 9.5-ns laser pulse and found that an appropriate axial laser repointing and azimuthal outer-quad splitting resulted in significantly improved hohlraum energetics...

Eggshell fragments, paper pads from chick boxes, and fluff samples were obtained from three commercial primary breeder hatcheries and analyzed for the presence and level of salmonellae with identical laboratory methods in 1991 and 1998. Overall, 29 of 180 samples (16.1%) from the three hatcheries in 1998 were contaminated with salmonellae, whereas in 1991, 11.1% of the overall samples were found to be salmonellae positive. Salmonellae were detected in 1.7% of eggshell fragments, 1.7% of fluff samples, and 48% of the paper pad samples in 1998, whereas 15.2, 4.5, and 12% of these type samples, respectively, were salmonellae positive in 1991. Although the percentage of positive samples was slightly higher in 1998 than 1991, from an enumeration standpoint, the salmonellae contamination in primary breeder hatcheries seems to have improved in the past 7 yr. In 1998, less than 4% of the positive samples had high levels of salmonellae, whereas in 1991 36% of the positive samples had high numbers of salmonellae. Primary broiler breeder and broiler hatcheries present critical control points in the prevention of salmonellae contamination during commercial poultry production. The cycle of salmonellae contamination will not likely be broken until contamination at these critical points is dramatically reduced or eliminated.

Nest-clean and dirty eggs were sampled monthly across the productive period of a commercial broiler breeder flock. Eggshells and membranes were examined for total aerobic bacterial and Enterobacteriaceae counts per egg. Paired nest-clean and dirty eggs were spray sanitized in a two-stage commercial egg sanitizing machine (a chlorine detergent wash followed by a quaternary ammonia sanitizing spray) and tested for bacterial contamination. As the flock aged, numbers of bacteria per nest-clean egg fluctuated without a noticeable trend (from log10 4.1 to 5.3 aerobic bacteria). Bacterial populations were significantly lower on sanitized eggs (log10 0.8 to 3.2 cells total aerobic bacteria and 2 to 5 cells Enterobacteriaceae per egg) regardless of hen age. Those eggs classified as dirty had visible fecal contanmination and higher bacterial numbers than nest-clean eggs (log10 5.9 to 7.6 cells total aerobic bacteria per egg). After sanitization, previously dirty eggs had bacterial populations comparable to those of sanitized nest-clean eggs. When eggs were examined in the hatchery at transfer, sanitized dirty eggs were still microbiologically indistinguishable from sanitized net-clean eggs, though both groups had higher bacterial contamination levels than had been observed in samples taken immediately following sanitization.

Salmonellae can penetrate egg shells without causing decomposition of the egg. As these chicks hatch, reservoirs of salmonellae can take hold on the commercial hatchery. Our study in 1990 sampled eggshells from hatching trays, belt swabs, and paper pads from three commercial hatcheries and found 75.5%, 90.9% and 66.7% contamination, respectively. This study in 1995 repeated these samples, but found 22.5%, 52.2%, and 12.1% contamination, respectively. The decline in salmonellae contamination is both dramatic and encouraging, resulting from several important factors.

Since the advent of the animal welfare movement in the early sixties, a considerable amount of research has been generated in an attempt to address questions surrounding cage housing, beak trimming, and induced molting practices for poultry. Although researchers have had difficulty in clearly defining and accurately measuring welfare from a scientific perspective, some interesting and useful results have nevertheless been obtained. The purpose of this paper is to review some of the more important findings regarding cage housing, beak trimming, and induced molting of layers as they relate to the future of these practices.

One hundred fifteen patients with signs and symptoms of Mortons' interdigital neuroma were studied in an attempt to evaluate the efficacy of a staged treatment program. The first stage consisted of patient education, footwear modifications, and metatarsal head relief. The second stage consisted of a steroid/local anesthetic injection into the affected interspace. The third stage was surgical excision of the inflamed interdigital nerve. Overall, 97 of 115 patients (85%) believed that they had improved with the treatment program. Twenty-four patients (21%) eventually required surgical excision of the nerve and 23 of 24 patients (96%) had satisfactory results. The results of the staged treatment protocol were very satisfactory and patient satisfaction was high.

Radiation-driven, layered deuterium-tritium (DT) implosions were carried out using 3-shock and 4-shock “adiabat-shaped” drives and plastic ablators on the National Ignition Facility (NIF) [E. M. Campbell et al., AIP Conf. Proc. 429, 3 (1998)]. The purpose of these shots was to gain further understanding on the relative performance of the low-foot implosions of the National Ignition Campaign [M. J. Edwards et al., Phys. Plasmas 20, 070501 (2013)] versus the subsequent high-foot implosions [T. Doppner et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 115, 055001 (2015)]. The neutron yield performance in the experiment with the 4-shock adiabat-shaped drive was improved by factors ∼3 to ∼10, compared to five companion low-foot shots despite large low-mode asymmetries of DT fuel, while measured compression was similar to its low-foot companions. This indicated that the dominant degradation source for low-foot implosions was ablation-front instability growth, since adiabat shaping significantly stabilized this growth. For the experiment with the low-power 3-shock adiabat-shaped drive, the DT fuel compression was significantly increased, by ∼25% to ∼36%, compared to its companion high-foot implosions. The neutron yield increased by ∼20%, lower than the increase of ∼50% estimated from one-dimensional scaling, suggesting the importance of residual instabilities and asymmetries. For the experiment with the high-power, 3-shock adiabat-shaped drive, the DT fuel compression was slightly increased by ∼14% compared to its companion high-foot experiments. However, the compression was reduced compared to the lower-power 3-shock adiabat-shaped drive, correlated with the increase of hot electrons that hypothetically can be responsible for reduced compression in high-power adiabat-shaped experiments as well as in high-foot experiments. The total neutron yield in the high-power 3-shock adiabat-shaped shot N150416 was 8.5 × 1015 ± 0.2 × 1015, with the fuel areal density of 0.90 ± 0.07 g/cm2, corresponding to the ignition threshold factor parameter IFTX (calculated without alpha heating) of 0.34 ± 0.03 and the yield amplification due to the alpha heating of 2.4 ± 0.2. The performance parameters were among the highest of all shots on NIF and the closest to ignition at this time, based on the IFTX metric. The follow-up experiments were proposed to continue testing physics hypotheses, to measure implosion reproducibility, and to improve quantitative understanding on present implosion results.

This study examines the physical effects of spray sanitizing nest clean broiler hatching eggs with the MS Technologies, Inc. Mini-Master/4000® or by immersion dipping immediately following collection. The measurements taken during sanitizing were air, shell surface, and yolk surface temperatures. Researchers studied eggshell conductance, percentage egg moisture weight loss, and cuticle integrity following sanitizing. Treatments included non-sanitized controls and eggs sanitized by water dipping or automated spray washed with water, or spray washed and sanitized with chemical solutions. The automated spray washing consisted of two stages. In Stage 1, the temperature of the washing solution was 111°F, and in Stage 2 the temperature of the sanitizing solutions was 118°F. Automated spray sanitizing at fast processing speed (16 sec per flat) caused air and shell surface temperatures to rise by 28.4° and 20.3°F, respectively. These temperatures returned rapidly to pre-treatment temperature (83°F). Dipping eggs for 2 min in a sanitizer solution at 111°F resulted in a pattern of air and shell surface temperature increase and recovery similar to eggs sanitized by automation. Automated spray sanitizing caused a reduction in the shell cuticle, but cuticle removal was not severe enough to significantly increase eggshell conductance or percentage egg moisture weight loss.

This study investigated the efficacy of disinfectants applied to fertile hatching eggs with an egg spraying machine. Aerobic plate counts (APC) and coliform counts of clean and dirty nest eggs were determined before and after sanitizing treatments [chlorwash (peroxygen compounds) followed by Q800 (quaternary ammonium compounds); salmide followed by salmide (oxy-chlorine compounds)]. The mean APC of clean nest eggs with chlorwash followed by Q800 declined from log 4.2 to 0.6 and with salmide followed by salmide from log 3.2 to 0.9. Coliform counts of clean eggs decreased from log 1.4 to 0 (or to below the detection level of our methodology) with Chlorwash followed by Q800 and from log 0.9 to 0 with salmide followed by salmide. Thus, sanitizing clean nest eggs significantly lowered APC and coliform counts.

The efficacy of various disinfectants for removal of artificially inoculated Salmonella from fertile hatching eggs using an egg sanitizing machine was evaluated. Individual eggs inoculated with 1-2 million S. typhimurium cells each were subjected to one of ten chemical sanitizing treatments or water spray control. The water sanitized control resulted in a 28% reduction in Salmonella-positive eggs, Overall, each chemical treatment resulted in a lower percentage of Salmonella-positive eggs than water controls. However, no Salmonella were detected on eggs sanitized by a spray of polyhexamethylene biguanide hydrochloride (PHMB). This was the only treatment statistically different from other chemical treatments. These data demonstrate that the number of Salmonella-positive hatching eggs can be reduced by spraying various sanitizers on eggs soon after lay.

The application of poultry behavior to management is discussed with examples of behavior-management interactions relating to commercial poultry husbandry practices. Behaviors that are important for the adaptation of poultry to husbandry include: social behavior, aggression, sexual behavior, feeding, broodiness, cannibalism, nest site selection, and comfort behaviors.

Egg fragments from hatching trays, swabs of belting material, and paper pads from three broiler hatcheries were sampled for the presence and level of salmonellae. Salmonella serotypes were recovered from 71, 80, and 74% of the egg fragments, belting material, and paper pads, respectively. Overall, salmonellae were found in 75, 91, and 67% of the samples taken at Hatchery 1,2, and 3, respectively. Thirty-eight of 40 randomly selected samples contained greater than 10(3) salmonellae cells per sample. All of the Salmonella serotypes encountered in the present study had previously been isolated from poultry. The presence and persistence of salmonellae contamination in the hatchery suggests that the vulnerable day-of-hatch chick may be at a greater colonization risk in the hatchery than during grow-out. Contamination and penetration of the shell of hatching eggs may constitute the most important link (or critical control point) in the transmission of salmonellae to young birds and eventually the consumer. An effective intervention method may have to be employed at this point to break the transmission link and significantly impact the overall problem of Salmonella colonization in poultry.

Day-old male broiler breeder chicks were obtained from a commercial hatchery and raised as broilers. For Experiment 1, at 5 wk of age, the broilers were orally inoculated with a 10(6) cfu/ml of a characterized strain of Campylobacter jejuni and a cocktail (three naladixic acid-resistant strains) of Salmonella serovars. One week after inoculation, the birds were euthanatized and defeathered. The abdominal cavity was examined and any unabsorbed yolk material (and remaining yolk stalk) and ceca were aseptically removed for microbiological analyses. For each pooled sample (two birds per pool), an aerobic plate count (APC), an Enterobacteriaceae (ENT) count, and a test for the presence of Campylobacter and Salmonella was performed. For Experiment 2, at 5 wk of age, the broilers were orally inoculated with 10(5) cfu/ml of a characterized strain of Campylobacter jejuni. One week after inoculation, the birds (n = 20) were killed, defeathered, and the yolk stalk, attached yolk, or free-floating yolk and ceca were individually analyzed for presence of Campylobacter. For Experiment 1, the Salmonella-inoculated birds had 2/12 ceca and 0/12 unabsorbed yolk samples positive for Salmonella. The average yolk APC was log10 3.4 cfu/g and the average ENT was log10 1.9 cfu/g. For the Campylobacter-inoculated birds, 12/12 ceca and 9/12 unabsorbed yolk samples were positive for Campylobacter. The average yolk APC was log10 3.5 cfu/g and the average ENT was log10 3.1 cfu/g. For Experiment 2, the inoculated Campylobacter birds had 19/20 ceca, 5/20 free floating yolks, and 19/20 yolk stalks positive. In Experiment 1, the inoculated Campylobacter colonized the ceca in every instance and were present in 75% of the unabsorbed yolks. Alternatively, the inoculated Salmonella were not found in any of the unabsorbed yolks and only rarely in the ceca. In Experiment 2, the inoculated Campylobacter was found in very high numbers in the yolk and internal body samples. Determining to what extent these internal bodies and unabsorbed yolks play in bacterial colonization and contamination of the birds at processing has not been determined. The next step will be to determine the incidence of unabsorbed yolks and presence of Campylobacter and Salmonella in these bodies of commercial broilers at processing.

Clostridium perfringens, a cause of human foodborne and poultry disease, has been isolated from the intestinal tract of poultry and from the processed carcass. Little is known about the incidence and sources of this pathogen in the poultry production environment. To determine if the broiler hatchery is a possible source of C. perfringens, we collected samples from three hatcheries, each operated by a different poultry integrator, and the presence of C. perfringens in these samples was determined. For each sampling period, eggshell fragments, chick fluff from the hatcher, and paper pads stored in the hatchery before use with chicks and after placement beneath chicks for 1 hr were evaluated. Clostridium perfringens was found in eggshell fragments, fluff, and paper pads in each of the three hatcheries. The percentages of C. perfringens-positive samples from the three hatcheries ranged from 13% to 23%, with an overall incidence of 20%. Positive samples were consistently found, i.e., detected on each of the nine sampling days (three sampling days for each of three hatcheries). These results suggest that the hatchery is a potential source/reservoir for C. perfringens in the integrated poultry operation.

The quality of the hatching egg cannot be improved after lay. From the time of lay until it is set in the incubator the best strategy is one that will retard any loss in hatching egg quality. There are a number of biological, physical, and environmental factors which can influence the quality of hatching eggs.

A hatchery is not a typical industrial building; it is highly specialized with unique requirements for construction and operation. In reviewing the literature for this chapter, a very recent document was discovered that covers practically all the main concerns for building a modern hatchery. The document, Designing the Ultimate Hatchery, was prepared as a joint effort by Chick Master Incubator Company 1 and Hatchery Planning Company,2 companies that are involved in the planning, design, and day-to-day operation of poultry hatcheries. It provides an excellent description of the most important concerns beginning with the planning phase and continues through design, construction, and operation of the modern hatchery. An edited version of this document is presented here.

The primary reasons for installing new hatchery equipment is to improve hatchability and chick quality, increase capacity, and reduce labor and energy costs. Some types of equipment will be common to all hatcheries while other equipment may be required only in certain types of hatcheries. There are few, if any standards. While considering which equipment is necessary and which is optional, the following points should be considered: Size of the hatchery Number of hatches per week Disease control programs and sanitation needs Primary breeders, broilers, commercial layers, turkeys, or others Brand and model of incubators Use of in ovo vaccination Chick processing requirements Labor availability and costs Local utilities availability and costs

The current state of artificial incubation practices in the poultry industry should be prefaced with a brief description of the development of the chicken embryo. Nutrients needed for the development of avian embryos are obtained from the food material stored in the egg rather than from nutrients derived from the blood supply of the mother, as in the case of mammals. Furthermore, most of the embryonic growth occurs outside the hen’s body, and development is more rapid and unlike that with most mammalian species.

Numerous factors have pronounced influence on the hatchability of chicken eggs. Many of these are important long before the eggs are placed in the incubator. For example, breeder flock health, nutrition, breed, age of breeders, and breeder flock management can result in tremendous variation in hatchability. Equally important is the micro-environment surrounding the eggs prior to incubation. Egg collection, storage, and handling must be optimum to maintain embryonic viability before and during incubation. After setting in the incubator, temperature, turning, humidity, ventilation in the incubators and incubator rooms, sanitation, and general hatchery management are all critical factors to ensure embryonic survival and hatchability.

The task of operating a commercial chicken hatchery requires continuous monitoring of numerous environmental factors that may affect chick hatchability and quality. Any small deviation in operating procedures, the quality of hatching eggs, and the care the chicks receive following the hatch can have a major impact on the success of the hatchery and, therefore, the economics of the operation. Not only are the chicks affected at the time, but oftentimes mismanagement in the hatchery can affect the overall performance of the flock.