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This study interprets the development of various flow types of the Transdanubian Mountains. For this, pressure was calculated at different depths and along some profiles the horizontal, specific temperature was calculated based on geoisotherms. This is the value of temperature distribution calculated to a given place. It has been established that upwellings develop at sites where the value of horizontal specific temperature is more than 0.8 °C, and partial upwelling can be detected where this value is between 0.6 °C and 0.8 °C. Outflow from the karst is present where this value is below 0.4 °C. Taking into consideration these values, the water temperature of karst springs and the caves of heat effect, the distribution of various flow types are determined. The flow type is also affected by the fault structure of the basin. In the case of horsts subsided to a great degree, since the sediment is thick above such horsts, the water is not able to flow upwards and towards the mountains because the hydrostatic pressure does not prevail any more. Above horsts subsided to a lower degree, the sediment is thin and thus, the water moving upwards is able to flow through.

This study deals with the processes of subsidence dolines. These processes contribute to the understanding of the characteristics of karst areas and the relation between dolines and their environment. For this, several hundred dolines of various karst areas were studied. Investigations included measurements of doline size and processes (for example mass movements), the mapping of their morphology and processes, observation and tracking of some processes (for instance water inflow). Laboratory experiments were carried out, and we had VES measurements performed to obtain data on their sediments. The processes of dolines with various development phase were distinguished. The processes of developed dolines were classified according the site of their effect which may be present in the environment, on the side slope, on the floor, on the cover below the floor and in the bedrock. The processes were also put into groups based on their direction. It was established that the degree of supplier and transporting away processes and their value compared to each other controls doline size, while the denudation of the doline slope and the accumulation on its floor influences doline shape.

In this study, the effect of earthquakes, beginning on 28 December 2020, on dropout doline development in the environs of Mečenčani and Borojevići was investigated. For that purpose, the shape of the doline, the inclination of the bearing surface and the rate of doline development were determined. A further analysis involved the characteristics of groundwater in the environs of the dolines and a functional relationship between the depth and the diameter of the dolines was sought. A model is proposed for the failure of the ceiling of cover cavities without support. The intensity of doline development is explained by favourable environment (dual cavity system, low inclination of the bearing surface, the presence and fluctuation of groundwater, etc.), the direct effect of earthquakes (material failure induced by earthquakes) and by their indirect effect (the partial solifluction of the ceiling material, lowered groundwater level).

This study investigated the evolution and development of plate-shaped dolines (depressions with a large diameter, small depth and plain floor) within the framework of a case study. For the determination of their morphological characteristics, the morphological parameters of 16 dolines were measured and calculated (their average values were compared to the parameter average values of the dolines of other doline types). Based on the data from the vertical electrical sounding measurements, the superficial deposit and the morphology of the bedrock of six dolines were studied. It can be stated that the plate-shaped dolines increased in size by widening. They were formed at sites where the water drainage and material transport capacities of the epikarst of the bedrock ceased on doline floors, while the drainage and material transport took place at the margin of the dolines. Their genetic varieties were plate-shaped dolines with a karren, plate-shaped dolines with a drawdown doline, plate-shaped dolines with a subsidence doline, plate-shaped dolines without a drawdown doline and plate-shaped dolines with a partial doline.

Eighty-one karst types and their main characteristics are described in this study, including the conditions of their development, the main characteristics of their karstification and their characteristic features. The classification includes the karst types of the Earth, a concise description of each karst type and the possibilities of belonging to several types of various karst areas. The classification of types is hierarchical in terms of groups, subgroups, types and subtypes. Karst can be classified according to their momentary state (the group of static karst types) and to their development (group of dynamic karst types). The group of static karst types has the azonal and zonal subgroups. zonal karst types may be situated under any climate. These karst types are categorized according to their geological characteristics (age of karstification, constituting rock, extent of coveredness, structure), their elevation, expansion, the morphology of their surface, hydrology and to the effects occurring on the karst. Taking the above mentioned factors into consideration, the author distinguishes various types and describes their characteristics. Zonal karst types are also described (tundra karst, temperate karst, subtropical karst, tropical karst), karst types that can be distinguished based on their geomorphic evolution are identified and their characteristics are presented.

The karren formation and karren features of bare slopes is studied. The occurrence of various karren features was measured on slopes with different inclination. The occurrence of various karren features on slopes has been presented according to slope inclination values. The slopes were put into slope categories and their karren features were given. Thus, the karren formation of the bare slopes of various karst types and karst features (glaciokarst, coastal karst, tropical karst, mediterranean karst, collapse dolines, gorges, caves etc.) can be described. It can be stated that on limestone with the increase of the inclination of the bearing slope, the diversity of karren features decreases and those of flow origin will be increasingly dominant. However, with the increase of slope inclination, features of flow origin will be increasingly simpler. On limestone, on slopes with a smaller dip and on slopes of less soluble rocks, the distribution of karren features of seepage origin increases. On glaciokarst, where bare slopes are widespread and of various inclination, karren are diverse and the distribution of various types is also considerable. In other karst areas, small-inclined slopes (coastal karst, tropical karst) or very large-inclined slopes (tropical karst, collapse dolines) are predominant and thus, the distribution of some karren features (e.g. rinnenkarren) is limited. The change of slope inclination may result in the change of karren formation. On glaciokarst, bare and subsoil karren formation are separated from each other, on mediterranean and tropical karst, they are less separated from each other and the latter prepares the former. On halite, the effect of slope inclination on karren formation may be modified by intensive dissolution. The karren formations of halite and tropical karst are partly similar which can be explained by intensive dissolution in both cases.

In this study, the development of rinnenkarren systems is analyzed. During the field studies, 36 rinnenkarren systems were investigated. The width and depth were measured at every 10 cm on the main channels and then shape was calculated to these places (the quotient of channel width and depth). Water flow was performed on artificial rinnenkarren system. A relation was looked for between the density of tributary channels and the average shape of the main channel, between the distance of tributary channels from each other and the shape of a given place of the main channel. The density and total length of the tributary channels on the lower and upper sections of the main channels being narrow at their lower end (11 pieces) and being wide at their lower end (10 pieces) of the rinnenkarren systems were calculated as well as their average proportional distance from the lower end of the main channel. The number of channel hollows was determined on the lower and upper sections of these main channels. It can be stated that the average shape of the main channel calculated to its total length depends on the density of the tributary channels and on the distance of tributary channels from each other. The main channel shape is smaller if less water flows on the floor for a long time because of the small density of the tributary channels and the great distance between the tributary channels. In this case, the channel deepens, but it does not widen. The width of the main channel depends on the number and location of the rivulets developing on channel-free relief. The main channel becomes narrow towards its lower end if the tributary rivulets are denser and longer on the upper part of the main rivulet developing on the channel-free, plain terrain and their distance is larger compared to the lower end. The channel hollows develop mainly at those places where the later developing tributary channels are hanging above the floor of the main channel. Thus, the former ones are younger than the latter ones. It can be stated that the morphology of the main channels (shape, channel hollows, and width changes of the main channel) is determined by the tributary channels (their number, location and age).

Shaft development can be documented on the basis of comparative studies of specific shaft lengths and shaft patterns. We calculated the specific length of shafts and the average specific shaft length of the shafts in some karst areas and we investigated the relation between the altitude of shaft floors and the specific shaft length. Taking the registered specific shaft lengths and the shaft patterns into consideration, it can be stated that some parts of the shafts developed paragenetically in the studied karst areas. In the Bakony Region, this was caused by surface water influx, rise of karst water level, and their simultaneous effect. As a result, shaft systems, bifurcating shafts and storeyed shafts developed. On glaciokarst areas, shafts may constitute a system with phreatic passages: either because a phreatic envi ronment developed in the vadose zone due to the permanent impoundment of karst water or because a phreatic passage got into the vadose zone since the karst became elevated. On the studied karst areas, the following shaft development types are distinguished: glacial-high mountain surface flood development type (1), glacial-high mountain karst water and surface flood development type (2), glacial karst water and surface flood later phreatic development type (3), shaft with a passage that got into the vadose zone (4).

In this study, the evolution, the development and the development environment of solution dolines of glaciokarst (the Alps and the Dinarides) are studied. Based on morphological observations (partly with the help of literary data), the dolines of sample sites were put into doline types (giant solution doline, small-sized solution doline and schachtdoline). The various features of the dolines belonging to different doline types were analysed and compared: their size, shape, elongated nature and the slope angle of their side slope. Giant solution dolines are much more similar to the dolines of the temperate belt rather than to small-sized solution dolines or schachtdolines. At temperate climate, giant solution dolines developed under the tree line similarly to dolines of the temperate belt, and not above the tree line. Below the tree line, the dolines grew horizontally to the effect of horizontal dissolution. Later, in the glacials, they developed laterally mainly along their longer axis by glacial erosion. They got into their periglacial environment during the uplifting of the bearing area. In mountains where they are absent, the circumstances of their environment were not present either because the uplifting of the mountain was fast or it was covered by non-karstic rock. The shapes of small-sized solution dolines and schachtdolines prove that their increase happened by deepening. Their deepening was caused by the meltwater of the snow patches of snow drifts which water does not move laterally because of the rock debris of the floor and thus, solution works downwards in the features. Deepening and snow accumulation strengthen each other. These karstic depressions are connected to the periglacial zone because treeless environment favours snow drifts. If the depression is completely filled with snow in most part of the year, the snow patch is wide thus, dissolution affects the total width of the doline. A doline (schachtdoline) with vertical sides and plain floor develops. If snow-fill is only partial in most part of the year, the snow patch and thus, dissolution will have a smaller area and a small-sized solution doline with funnel shape develops.

The surface karst of the Bakony Region is described. VES measurements were applied to study the cover and the morphology of the bedrock. A karstmorphological mapping was also performed. A relation was established between the karst types and block types in the mountains. The karstification of the mountains was affected by the block structure of the mountains, the mounds of the uneven bedrock, the presence of superficial deposits and their young denudation. As a result of the above mentioned facts, the karst of the mountains is varied. Soil-covered karst is widespread in the mountains, but the specific features of this type (solution dolines) only occur on threshold surfaces at the margin of the mountains and on dolomite. The concealed karst was mainly formed on horsts elevated to summit position, but it can also be found on threshold surfaces and on horsts in summit position. Its features are subsidence dolines and depressions of superficial deposit. Cryptokarst and buried karst can be created by gravelly cover or basalt. Where the cover is gravel, epigenetic valleys develop with opened-up phreatic cavities. Where the cover is basalt, ponors develop at its margin, while inside, where the basalt thins out, caprock dolines are formed.

This chapter presents the glacier types associated with karsts and the types of glaciokarst. Among the latter, the glacier/karst interactions and planform types are analysed in detail. The conditions of glacier formation are investigated and the geomorphological zones and subzones of glaciokarst are overviewed. When presenting the properties of glaciokarst, the balance of subglacial waters and epikarst characteristics are described, glaciokarst types are distinguished by the age and mode of origin and the modes and rates of transformation of landforms are identified.

In this chapter, the karst landforms of glaciokarst are presented which are the following: karren, giant grikes, shafts, karst depressions such as giant depressions (dolines, uvalas), small-sized solution dolines, schachtdolines, subsidence dolines, ponors and poljes. We describe their distribution and frequency, their relation to glacial erosional features as well as the relation between each other, their size, morphology, varieties, evolution, development and development age.

The recent karstic patterns of glaciokarst are presented. Karstic pattern is described taking karst types and karst-type assemblages into consideration. The recent karstification and pattern of the areas of former cirque glaciers, valley glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets and piedmont glaciers are presented. The recent karstic pattern and development of the karst of glaciokarst types (plateau glaciokarst, semi-plateau glaciokarst, mountain glaciokarst, rock fortress, ridge glaciokarst, complex glaciokarst and island glaciokarst) are analysed and described.

The chapter presents the movement of warm-based and cold-based glaciers. The factors influencing the slide and flow of glaciers are described. The geomorphic action of glaciers is discussed with a focus on karst. On karst, glacial erosion is characteristic in karst depressions, in stratified limestone, as well as in troughs which developed on similar rocks. As regards depressions, the denudation of slopes the inclination of which is identical with (downstream slopes) or opposite to (upstream slopes) the direction of glacier flow, the destruction of the thresholds of uvalas (all of them) and the glacial erosional transformation of depressions partly filled with non-moving ice are analysed. The formation of stepped surfaces of stratified limestone terrains as well as the relationship between troughs with stepped surfaces, valley directions and the dip direction of beds are presented.

This chapter involves five case studies, in which the landscape and the relation of karstification and glacial erosion are described. Three case studies deal with the sample sites of the Alps (Northern Calcareous Alps, Julian Alps and Bernese Alps). One area is situated in the Durmitor (Dinarides), while the fifth area is a special site. It is a subarctic karst in the southern part of Patagonia developing under extreme climatic circumstances.

The conditions for sediment accumulation in the intermittent lakes of subsidence dolines were modelled in laboratory. For a given water table sinking rate we investigated the grain size and settling velocity of the sediment that is deposited in the basin. Two types of suspension were made that had natural-like characteristic features. In both types, the size of the single-grained, solid material was smaller than 0.063 mm and their concentration was 0.2 m/m %. One of the suspension types was also loaded with shredded vegetable residues in a concentration of 0.05 m/m % because vegetable residues occur in the intermittent lakes of dolines and in the sediment of karstic depressions too. The sedimentation rate was determined in a measuring tube for both concentrates in a water depth of 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 cm. The sedimentation speed was greater in all water-layer thicknesses in the suspension that contained vegetable waste than in the system that only contained clay. The presence of vegetable residues increased the sedimentation rate thus, the quantity of the deposited material too. It can be concluded that sedimentation occurs in the sediment basin if the sedimentation speed of the grains of the suspension is greater than (or equal to) the velocity of water table decline in the basin. This nature of sedimentation can be regarded as a characteristic of the lakes of the bearing karstic depressions. Thus the sedimentation of the suspended material of the lake and its quantity is determined by the velocity of water table decline of the lake.

The relation between the inclination and the quality of the bearing slope, and the channel type and channel density of various rinnenkarren (type A and type B channels) was investigated. On the bare karren slopes of Totes Gebirge, the connection between the densities of type A and type B (type A channels have no tributary channels, and they are smaller; type B channels have tributary channels, and they are larger) channels and the slope angle was studied, while in laboratory the relation between the number of rivulets forming the channels and the slope angle and the quality of slope was analysed. The density of type A channels increases with the increase in the slope angle, while that of type B channels decreases. In the laboratory the number of rivulets on the various parts of the slope was studied on glass, gypsum and metal plates between 5 and 50° (as well as on metal plate between 1 and 70°). The dip angle of the bearing slope was modified every 5°. The number of rivulets increases with the slope angle mainly on the upper part of the slope and on the metal plate. The number of rivulets decreases towards the lower part of the slope in the case of the same slope and the same slope angle. The number of rivulets (and thus the number of channels) depends on the speed of water flow and the roughness of the surface. On a slope with a small dip angle (smaller than 20°), few rivulets and channels develop and, thus, rinnenkarren systems with large catchment areas may form whose main channels develop into large, type B channels. On slopes with a large dip angle (greater than 30°), numerous rivulets develop even at the beginning of channel development. Because of large rivulet density, channels with small catchment area and thus small-sized (type A) channels may develop. On the karren slopes, two models of channel development are possible: according to model 1, on slopes with a continuously smaller dip angle, the beginning of channel development is increasingly different, thus rinnenkarren systems form which are built by main and tributary channels. In the case of an increasing slope angle, this tendency is less and less valid. On slopes with an increasingly larger slope angle, the beginning of channel development will not be different. According to model 2 (based on the laboratory model), the rivulets that developed on the upper part of the slope join on the lower part of the slope. In this case the initiation of channel formation of the main and tributary channels of the rinnenkarren systems is similar. On the bare slopes of Totes Gebirge, model 1 can be regarded as the dominant one.

The study deals with the Lena Pillars (Sakha Republic, Russia, Siberia). The Lena Pillars are pinnacle features which are characteristic on karsts. The importance of these features is that they are extremely large and occur on very large areas. Their occurrence is interesting because they do not appear on tundra karst. We investigated the veneers of cliffs, the fracture density of the building rock, the distribution and dispersion of the fracture directions, direction distribution and dispersion of the giant grikes between the pillars, the layer thickness of the building rock, the size and dispersion of debris. We distinguished pillar types, and then we classified the features on the area of the pillars from a morphogenetical point of view. According to investigations and morphological analyses, the pillars developed from palaeokarsts. During the former karstification grikes and caverns developed close to the surface. These features coalesced into each other. The giant grikes of great size became filled and the pillars were covered. After the cut of the Lena River these features were revealed and became exhumed. Now the pillars are destroyed and continue developing by frost weathering.

The width and depth of the main channels were measured along the length of seven rinnenkarren systems on the floor of the glacier valley under the Tragl peak in the Totes Gebirge, Austria. The cross-section areas of the channels were calculated which were considered in relation to the distances between their location along the flow path and the margin of the slope. It can be stated that hollowings (local maxima) occur on the main channels at the connecting sites of the tributary channels. According to laboratory experiments, turbulent zones develop on the rivulet of the main channel, where the rivulet of the tributary channel joins the rivulet of the main channel. The length and the location of the turbulent zones depend on the slope angle, the joining angle of the tributary channel, the ratio of the water flow of the rivulets of the main and tributary channels as well as the water flow of the tributary channel. The pattern of the local maxima of the main channels is explained by the turbulence pattern which develops in the rivulets of the main channels. The turbulence pattern may be continuous (the turbulence is uninterrupted) or non-continuous (the turbulence is separated into turbulent zones of different lengths and densities). The length and density of turbulent zones determine the size and density of hollowings.

Covered karsts are classified according to the character of the cover (cryptokarst if the cover is impermeable and concealed karst if it is permeable), to the origin of cover deposits (locally deposited or transported there) and to the age of karstification (syngenetic if the depression in the cover and the form in the bedrock are of the same age and postgenetic if not). Covered karsts may develop in structural landforms (synclines, tectonic graben, horsts of various elevations) and in depressions formed by the powers shaping the surface, which could be of karstic origin (doline, ponor, polje, fengcong depressions and intermountain plains of fenglin karst) or of non-karstic origin (valley, abrasional platform and river terrace). The appearance and pattern of covered karst depend on the type of karst. When characterising pattern geosyncline or glaciokarst (folded-nappe structure), block mountains, platform, salt diapir, tundra, taiga, temperate, mediterranean and tropical covered karsts are distinguished. The geosyncline (glaciokarst) and block mountains karst types mainly occur under temperate climate, while the platform and salt diapir may appear on any climatic karst type. According to pattern, covered karst developed from allogenic karst (which can be recent allogenic, rejuvenating allogenic or semi-allogenic), nappe allogenic, horst, cirque, glacial trough, polje, karst hill, cueasta, tropical depression, polygonal, intermountain plain, petrified forest, platform and salt diapir covered karsts are identified. On the recent allogenic karst, in slope direction from the bordering non-karstic surface, cryptokarst, mixed and open karst zones are found. On the rejuvenating allogenic karst, in slope direction from the former terrain of sediment supply, open, mixed and buried karst zones follow each other. On the semi-allogenic karst, in lack of the accumulation of fluvial deposits, the cover sediment does not derive from the non-karstic terrain bordering the karst and is of continuous distribution. On the nappe allogenic karst, buried karst, cryptokarst (with karst windows), concealed karst and open karst zones occur. On horst covered karst, on the neighbouring blocks, concealed, crypto and buried karst terrains alternate (in patches or in continuous distribution). On the glacial trough covered karst, striped or striped-patchy patterns are typical. On the polje karst, continuous or zonal (so-called internal zonal) covered karst develops. On the karst hill covered karst, the patches of covered karst may coalesce, while on cueasta covered karst, the patches of covered karst are arranged in stripes parallel to the cuestas. The tropical depression covered karst and the polygonal covered karst show patchy distribution, while the intermountain plain covered karst is continuous, but can show internal zonation with crypto and concealed karst zones. No or poor zonation can be identified on the platform karst. The covered karst of salt diapir shows patches and develops on the cover uplifted by the rising salt diapir.

In this chapter the activity and processes related to covered karst depressions, particularly during floods, the associated phenomena and deposition are demonstrated. The reasons for activity are taken into account. Activities are typified by character and modes of water inflow. The phenomena related to activity (flood lake, overflow, throughflow, intermittent springs, onfilling) and types of activity (surface inflow, seepage, latent activity, composite activity) are identified. A typology of flood lakes, the deposits of lakes of various durations (series with plant waste, laminite), is proposed with explanations of their origin, from which conclusions are drawn to the conditions of depressions at the time of deposition. The deposits (charcoal, limonite, etc.) of fossil dolines are presented and the environments of their origin are analysed. Sedimentation from various types of suspensions in flood lakes was modelled in the laboratory. Landform evolution in dolines was classified according to its duration, and factors associated with the date and duration of landform evolution are considered. The changes in the depth of depressions over several years have been measured and the resultant landforms described. Comparing these two data series, the depressions were classified according to their material budget.

This chapter presents the evolution of covered karst surfaces. On karsts which develop from bare karst into covered karst, geomorphic evolution (increasing or decreasing extension of the covered karst) depends on the ratio between the inward transport of cover upon the karst and outward transport (removal of material). Here two-phase landform evolution takes place as on recent allogenic covered karst and renewed allogenic covered karst. On other types of covered karst, the cover formed independent from bare karst, and surface evolution has a single phase, such as in the case of horst covered karst, mantled allogenic covered karst, covered karst of glaciokarst and platform covered karst. Surface evolution begins with covered karst stage. In the latter group, a type (horst covered karst) also occurs where surface evolution is differentiated as a consequence of different evolution and different present elevation of karst horsts. Covered karst is continually reproduced where intensive karstification happens. Such type is tropical karst. In an overview of geomorphic evolution, the role bare karst plays in covered karst formation, the phases of bare karst development and the contribution of karstic and non-karstic landforms in landscape evolution are presented. When describing the various paths of evolution, the properties of cover rock are also taken into consideration.