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UNSTRUCTURED Patients' health data are routinely collected and stored in hospitals for care delivery. If the data is made available for researchers, it can be secondarily used for artificial intelligence research and development. Data sharing and reuse brought new ethical concerns to healthcare organizations and the medical and research communities alike. In this article, we discuss the main ethical aspects that underpin data sharing decisions: health data ownership, patient consentment, privacy, personal data anonymization, and the purpose of data reuse. Three pillars should guide organizations in data sharing decisions: regulations, ethics, and support for increasing patient engagement. Efforts should be undertaken to explain the risks, benefits, and opportunities of data sharing to patients and society at large. There is a concern that algorithms' outputs are biased, which may be a result of biased datasets. To prevent this, datasets must include a representative cross-section of the population so that discoveries and innovations are generalizable to all people. A deeper understanding of health data reuse by different stakeholders are decisive for elevating population health informatics research.

OBJECTIVES: This study evaluates the quality of ophthalmic images acquired by a nurse technician trained in teleophthalmology as compared with images acquired by an ophthalmologist, in order to provide a better understanding of the workforce necessary to operate remote care programs. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed on 2044 images obtained from 118 participants of the TeleOftalmo project, in Brazil. Fundus and slit-lamp photography were performed on site by an ophthalmologist and by a nurse technician under the supervision of a remote ophthalmologist. Image quality was then evaluated by masked ophthalmologists. Proportion of suitable images in each group was compared. RESULTS: The proportion of concordant classification regarding quality was 94.8%, with a corrected kappa agreement of 0.94. When analyzing each type of photo separately, there was no significant difference in the proportion of suitable images between on-site ophthalmologist and nurse technician with remote ophthalmologist assistance for the following: slit-lamp views of the anterior segment and anterior chamber periphery, and fundus photographs centered on the macula and on the optic disc (P = 0.825, P = 0.997, P = 0.194, and P = 0.449, respectively). For slit-lamp views of the lens, the proportion of suitable images was higher among those obtained by an ophthalmologist (99.6%) than by a technician (93.8%, P 90% adequacy for remote reading. Compared with ophthalmologist-acquired photos, the proportion of images deemed suitable achieved a high overall agreement. These findings provide favorable evidence of the adequacy of teleophthalmological imaging by nurse technicians.

Resumo Este estudo avaliou o custo de um serviço público de telediagnóstico em oftalmologia. O método de custeio baseado em atividades e tempo (TDABC) foi adotado para examinar os componentes de custos relacionados à teleoftalmologia. Com este método, também foi possível estabelecer o custo unitário padrão que o telediagnóstico deveria ter, dada a capacidade instalada e utilização de profissionais. Dados de um ano de telediagnósticos foram considerados, e avaliou-se a mudança do custo por telediagnóstico ao longo do período de adaptação da tecnologia no sistema. O custo padrão calculado por diagnóstico oftalmológico a distância foi de R$ 119, considerando a emissão de 1.080 laudos de telediagnóstico oftalmológico por mês. Foi identificado um desequilíbrio entre as atividades que sugere a capacidade do método TDABC orientar ações de gestão e melhoria na alocação dos recursos. Ao longo de um ano, o custo unitário real passou de R$ 783 para R$ 283, ainda havendo espaço para se aproximar do custo padrão estimado. Avaliações econômicas parciais possuem importante aporte para subsidiar a incorporação de novas tecnologias. O TDABC merece destaque nesse sentido, pois permite obter informações mais precisas sobre custo da tecnologia, melhorando a capacidade de dimensionamento e gerenciamento da organização de saúde. Abstract This study evaluated the cost of public telediagnostic service in ophthalmology. The time-driven activity-based costing method (TDABC) was adopted to examine the cost components related to teleophthalmology. This method allowed us to establish the standard unit cost of telediagnosis, given the installed capacity and utilization of professionals. We considered data from one year of telediagnoses and evaluated the cost per telediagnosis change throughout technology adaptation in the system. The standard cost calculated by distance ophthalmic diagnosis was approximately R$ 119, considering the issuance of 1,080 monthly ophthalmic telediagnostic reports. We identified an imbalance between activities, which suggests the TDABC method’s ability to guide management actions and improve resource allocation. The actual unit cost fell from R$ 783 to R$ 283 over one year – with room to approach the estimated standard cost. Partial economic evaluations contribute significantly to support the incorporation of new technologies. The TDABC method deserves prominence, as it enables us to retrieve more accurate information on the cost of technology, improving the scalability and management capacity of the healthcare system.

Objectives Advances in telemedicine offer a unique opportunity to expand access to the health system. Nevertheless, few studies have described the impact of telediagnosis implementation on health and economic outcomes. Methods An ophthalmology telediagnosis service (TeleOftalmo) was compared with traditional face-to-face care provided by the Brazilian public health system. For both groups, utility data were collected at 2 time points using the Visual Function Questionnaire–Utility Index instrument from interviews with 536 patients. The cost per patient encounter was analyzed according to the time-driven activity-based costing. Value analyses were conducted to ascertain whether and how telemedicine service has the potential to generate cost savings for the health system. Results Visual function–related quality of life did not differ significantly between TeleOftalmo and face-to-face care groups. Using the current model, the telemedicine service assisted an average of 1159 patients per month at a median cost per telediagnosis of Int$97 (interquartile range, Int$82-Int$119) versus Int$77 (interquartile range, Int$75-Int$80) for face-to-face care. If the telemedicine service was redesigned, considering the opportunities for improvement identified, it could operate at a cost of Int$53 per telediagnosis (a 31% cost savings) and could serve 3882 patients per month. Conclusions This study demonstrates the potential value of a telemedicine service. There was no difference in patient-perceived utility between a telediagnostic ophthalmology service and face-to-face care by an eye specialist. TeleOftalmo has the potential to be a cost-saving strategy for the Brazilian health system and could be a template for implementation of telediagnostic services in other regions.

ObjectiveThis study aimed to establish the utility values of different health states associated with diabetic retinopathy in a Brazilian sample to provide input to model-based economic evaluations.Subjects and methodsThis cross-sectional study was performed in a sample of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) who underwent teleophthalmology screening at a primary care service from 2014 to 2016. Five diabetic retinopathy health states were defined: absent, non-sight-threatening, sight-threatening, and bilateral blindness. Utility values were estimated using the Brazilian EuroQol five dimensions (EQ-5D) tariffs. Descriptive statistics were calculated. Analysis of covariance was performed to adjust the utility values for potential confounders.ResultsThe study included 206 patients. The mean (± standard deviation [SD]) utility value was 0.765 ± 0.19 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.740–0.790). The adjusted mean utility value was 0.748 (95% CI, 0.698–0.798) in patients without diabetic retinopathy, 0.752 (95% CI, 0.679–0.825) in those with non-sight-threatening state, 0.628 (95% CI, 0.521–0.736) in those with sight-threatening state, and 0.355 (95% CI, 0.105–0.606) in those with bilateral blindness. A significant utility decrement was found between patients without diabetic retinopathy and those with a sight-threatening health state (0.748 vs. 0.628, respectively, p = 0.04).ConclusionsThe findings suggest that a later diabetic retinopathy health state is associated with a decrement in utility value compared with the absence of retinopathy in patients with T2D. The results may be useful as preliminary input to model-based economic evaluations. Further research is needed to investigate the impact of diabetic retinopathy on health-related quality of life in a sample more representative of the Brazilian population.

PurposeTo determine whether teleophthalmology can help physicians in assessing and managing eye conditions and to ascertain which clinical conditions can be addressed by teleophthalmology in primary care setting.MethodsWe evaluated the resolution capacity of TeleOftalmo, strategy implemented in the public health system of southern Brazil. Resolution capacity was defined as the ability to fully address patients' eye complaints in primary care with remote assistance from ophthalmologists. Data from tele-eye reports were collected over 14 months. Resolution capacity was compared across different age groups and different ocular conditions.ResultsOverall, 8,142 patients had a tele-eye report issued in the study period. Resolution capacity was achieved in 5,748 (70.6%) patients. When stratified into age groups, the lowest capacity was 43.1% among subjects aged ≥65 years, while the highest was 89.7% among subjects aged 13-17 years (pConclusionsWith telemedicine support, primary care physicians solved over two-thirds of patients' eye or vision complaints. Refractive errors had high case resolution rates, thus having a great impact on reducing the number of referrals to specialty care. Teleophthalmology adoption in primary-care settings as part of the workup of patients with eye or vision complaints promotes a more effective use of specialty centers and will hopefully reduce waiting times for specialty referral.

Objective To perform a cost-utility analysis of diabetic retinopathy (DR) screening strategies from the perspective of the Brazilian Public Healthcare System. Methods A model-based economic evaluation was performed to estimate the incremental costs per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained between three DR screening strategies: (1) the opportunistic ophthalmology referral-based (usual practice), (2) the systematic ophthalmology referral-based, and (3) the systematic teleophthalmology-based. The target population included individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2D) aged 40 years, without retinopathy, followed over a 40-year time horizon. A Markov model was developed with five health states and a 1-year cycle. Model parameters were based on literature and country databases. One-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed to assess model parameters’ uncertainty. WHO willingness-to-pay (WHO-WTP) thresholds were used as reference (i.e. one and three times the Brazilian per capita Gross Domestic Product of R$32747 in 2018). Results Compared to usual practice, the systematic teleophthalmology-based screening was associated with an incremental cost of R$21445/QALY gained ($9792/QALY gained). The systematic ophthalmology referral-based screening was more expensive (incremental costs = R$4) and less effective (incremental QALY = −0.012) compared to the systematic teleophthalmology-based screening. The probability of systematic teleophthalmology-based screening being cost-effective compared to usual practice was 0.46 and 0.67 at the minimum and the maximum WHO-WTP thresholds, respectively. Conclusion Systematic teleophthalmology-based DR screening for the Brazilian population with T2D would be considered very cost effective compared to the opportunistic ophthalmology referral-based screening according to the WHO-WTP threshold. However, there is still a considerable amount of uncertainty around the results. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s40258-019-00528-w) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

This study evaluated the cost of public telediagnostic service in ophthalmology. The time-driven activity-based costing method (TDABC) was adopted to examine the cost components related to teleophthalmology. This method allowed us to establish the standard unit cost of telediagnosis, given the installed capacity and utilization of professionals. We considered data from one year of telediagnoses and evaluated the cost per telediagnosis change throughout technology adaptation in the system. The standard cost calculated by distance ophthalmic diagnosis was approximately R$ 119, considering the issuance of 1,080 monthly ophthalmic telediagnostic reports. We identified an imbalance between activities, which suggests the TDABC method's ability to guide management actions and improve resource allocation. The actual unit cost fell from R$ 783 to R$ 283 over one year - with room to approach the estimated standard cost. Partial economic evaluations contribute significantly to support the incorporation of new technologies. The TDABC method deserves prominence, as it enables us to retrieve more accurate information on the cost of technology, improving the scalability and management capacity of the healthcare system.Este estudo avaliou o custo de um serviço público de telediagnóstico em oftalmologia. O método de custeio baseado em atividades e tempo (TDABC) foi adotado para examinar os componentes de custos relacionados à teleoftalmologia. Com este método, também foi possível estabelecer o custo unitário padrão que o telediagnóstico deveria ter, dada a capacidade instalada e utilização de profissionais. Dados de um ano de telediagnósticos foram considerados, e avaliou-se a mudança do custo por telediagnóstico ao longo do período de adaptação da tecnologia no sistema. O custo padrão calculado por diagnóstico oftalmológico a distância foi de R$ 119, considerando a emissão de 1.080 laudos de telediagnóstico oftalmológico por mês. Foi identificado um desequilíbrio entre as atividades que sugere a capacidade do método TDABC orientar ações de gestão e melhoria na alocação dos recursos. Ao longo de um ano, o custo unitário real passou de R$ 783 para R$ 283, ainda havendo espaço para se aproximar do custo padrão estimado. Avaliações econômicas parciais possuem importante aporte para subsidiar a incorporação de novas tecnologias. O TDABC merece destaque nesse sentido, pois permite obter informações mais precisas sobre custo da tecnologia, melhorando a capacidade de dimensionamento e gerenciamento da organização de saúde.

Telemedicine can be used to conduct ophthalmological assessment of patients, facilitating patient access to specialist care. Since the teleophthalmology models require data collection support from other health professionals, the purpose of our study was to assess agreement between the nursing technician and the ophthalmologist in acquisition of health parameters that can be used for remote analysis as part of a telemedicine strategy. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 140 patients referred to an ophthalmological telediagnosis center by primary healthcare doctors. The health parameters evaluated were visual acuity (VA), objective ophthalmic measures acquired by autorefraction, keratometry, and intraocular pressure (IOP). Bland-Altman plots were used to analyze agreement between the nursing technician and the ophthalmologist. The Bland-Altman analysis showed a mean bias equal to zero for the VA measurements [95%-LoA: -0.25–0.25], 0.01 [95%-LoA: -0.86–0.88] for spherical equivalent (M), -0.08 [95%-LoA: -1.1–0.95] for keratometry (K) and -0.23 [95%-LoA: -4.4–4.00] for IOP. The measures had a high linear correlation (R [95%CI]: 0.87 [0.82–0.91]; 0.97 [0.96–0.98]; 0.96 [0.95–0.97] and 0.88 [0.84–0.91] respectively). The results observed demonstrate that remote ophthalmological data collection by adequately trained health professionals is viable. This confirms the utility and safety of these solutions for scenarios in which access to ophthalmologists is limited.

Introduction We must study alternatives to structure an effective diabetic retinopathy screening program for Brazilian public health system. Objectives Evaluate the diagnostic performance of retinal digital photography for diabetic retinopathy screening in primary care, accuracy of the family physician in diabetic retinopathy identification compared to the ophthalmologist, and the need for dilation. Methodology In a primary care service were performed retinal photographs with non-mydriatic Retinal Camera in 219 type 2 diabetic patients with and without medication mydriasis. We evaluated the performance of the diagnostic of the photos graded by three family physicians with training compared to two ophthalmologists (gold standard), and explore related factors with the need for mydriasis pharmacologically. Results The prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and proliferative diabetic retinopathy was 19.2% and 1.5%, respectively. The sensitivity of family physicians to evaluate diabetic retinopathy averaged 82.9% (66.7–94.8%); specificity, 92% (90.2–93.3%); the accuracy, 90.3% (88.2–93%) and positive predictive value, 71.2% (68–75.5%). The agreement calculated using the kappa adjusted coefficient was from 0.74 to 0.8 for retinopathy and 0.88 to 0.92 for macular edema. Without drug mydriasis the photos were unreadable by 14.8%, when using mydriatic collyrium this number decreased to 8.7% (McNemar test, P < 0.005). Patients with more than 65 years old has more readability after drug mydriasis (McNemar test, P = 0.011). Conclusion Trained family physician reached a good performance for evaluation of retinography for diabetic retinopathy. There was improvement in readability with pupil dilation in older patients.