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Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a heterogeneous disease. More insight into the biological diversity of CRC is needed to improve therapeutic outcomes. Established CRC cell lines are frequently used and were shown to be representative models of the main subtypes of CRC at the genomic and transcriptomic level. In the present work, we established stable, luciferase expressing derivatives from 10 well-established CRC cell lines, generated spheroids and subcutaneous xenograft tumors in nude mice, and performed comparative characterization of these model systems. Transcriptomic analyses revealed the close relation of cell lines with their derived spheroids and xenograft tumors. The preclinical model systems clustered with patient tumor samples when compared to normal tissue thereby confirming that cell-line-based tumor models retain specific characteristics of primary tumors. Xenografts showed different differentiation patterns and bioluminescence imaging revealed metastatic spread to the lungs. In addition, the models were classified according to the CMS classification system, with further sub-classification according to the recently identified two intrinsic epithelial tumor cell states of CRC, iCMS2 and iCMS3. The combined data showed that regarding primary tumor characteristics, 3D-spheroid cultures resemble xenografts more closely than 2D-cultured cells do. Furthermore, we set up a bioluminescence-based spheroid cytotoxicity assay in order to be able to perform dose-response relationship studies in analogy to typical monolayer assays. Applying the established assay, we studied the efficacy of oxaliplatin. Seven of the ten used cell lines showed a significant reduction in the response to oxaliplatin in the 3D-spheroid model compared to the 2D-monolayer model. Therapy studies in selected xenograft models confirmed the response or lack of response to oxaliplatin treatment. Analyses of differentially expressed genes in these models identified CAV1 as a possible marker of oxaliplatin resistance. In conclusion, we established a combined 2D/3D, in vitro/in vivo model system representing the heterogeneity of CRC, which can be used in preclinical research applications.

Tumor-associated carbonic anhydrases IX (CAIX) and XII (CAXII) have long been in the spotlight as potential new targets for anti-cancer therapy. Recently, CAIX/CAXII specific inhibitor SLC-0111 has passed clinical phase I study and showed differential response among patients with colorectal cancer (CRC). CRC can be classified into four different consensus molecular subgroups (CMS) showing unique expression patterns and molecular traits. We questioned whether there is a CMS-related CAIX/CAXII expression pattern in CRC predicting response. As such, we analyzed transcriptomic data of tumor samples for CA9/CA12 expression using Cancertool. Protein expression pattern was examined in preclinical models comprising cell lines, spheroids and xenograft tumors representing the CMS groups. Impact of CAIX/CAXII knockdown and SLC-0111 treatment was investigated in 2D and 3D cell culture. The transcriptomic data revealed a characteristic CMS-related CA9/CA12 expression pattern with pronounced co-expression of both CAs as a typical feature of CMS3 tumors. Protein expression in spheroid- and xenograft tumor tissue clearly differed, ranging from close to none (CMS1) to strong CAIX/CAXII co-expression in CMS3 models (HT29, LS174T). Accordingly, response to SLC-0111 analyzed in the spheroid model ranged from no (CMS1) to clear (CMS3), with moderate in CMS2 and mixed in CMS4. Furthermore, SLC-0111 positively affected impact of single and combined chemotherapeutic treatment of CMS3 spheroids. In addition, combined CAIX/CAXII knockdown and more effective treatment with SLC-0111 reduced clonogenic survival of CMS3 modelling single cells. In conclusion, the preclinical data support the clinical approach of targeted CAIX/CAXII inhibition by showing linkage of expression with response and suggest that patients with CMS3-classified tumors would most benefit from such treatment.

The local controlled release of siRNA is an attractive and rational strategy to enhance and extend the effectiveness of gene therapy. Since naked and unmodified siRNA has a limited cell uptake and knockdown efficiency, the complexation of siRNA with non-viral carriers is often necessary for the delivery of bioactive RNA. We evaluated the performance of three different non-viral siRNA carriers, including DOTAP lipoplexes (DL), chitosan polyplexes (CP), and solid lipid complexes (SLC). The physicochemical properties of the siRNA-nanocarriers were characterized by dynamic light scattering and gel electrophoresis. After in vitro characterization, the carrier with the most appropriate properties was found to be the DL suspension, which was subsequently loaded into a gellan gum hydrogel matrix and examined for its drug load, stability, and homogeneity. The hydrogels microstructure was investigated by rheology to assess the impact of the rheological properties on the release of the siRNA nanocarriers. A controlled release of complexed siRNA over 60 days in vitro was observed. By comparing the results from fluorescence imaging with data received from HPLC measurements, fluorescence imaging was found to be an appropriate tool to measure the release of siRNA complexes. Finally, the bioactivity of the siRNA released from hydrogel was tested and compared to free DL for its ability to knockdown the GFP expression in a DLD1 colon cancer cell model. The results indicate controlled release properties and activity of the released siRNA. In conclusion, the developed formulation is a promising system to provide local controlled release of siRNA over several weeks.

Background Aims: The immunomodulating capacity of multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) qualifies them as a therapeutic tool in several diseases. However, repeated transplantation with products of reproducible characteristics may be required. This could be achieved with cryopreserved aliquots of Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)-grade MSCs. However, the impact of cryopreservation on the characteristics of GMP-MSCs is ill defined., Methods: We produced fresh and cryopreserved MSCs from human donors with a xenogen-free GMP protocol. Immunogenicity and immunomodulating capacity were tested in co-culture with putative recipient-specific peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Risk of malignant transformation was assessed in vitro and in vivo., Results: Cryopreservation had no impact on viability and consensus criteria of MSCs. In co-culture with PBMCs, MSCs showed low immunogenicity and suppressed mitogen-stimulated proliferation of PBMC irrespective of cryopreservation. Cytogenetic aberrations were not observed consistently in fresh and cryopreserved products, and no signs of malignant transformation occurred in functional assays. MSC products from an elderly pretreated donor showed reduced functional quality, but imminent failure of functional criteria could be detected by an increased population doubling time in early passages., Discussion: This study is the first systematic analysis on cryopreservation of xenogen-free human bone marrow-derived GMP-MSCs. The data support that cryopreservation does not alter the characteristics of the cells and thus may allow the generation of products for serial transplantation. In addition, the protocol allowed early detection of MSC products with low functional capacity., (Copyright © 2015 International Society for Cellular Therapy. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

A continuous monitoring of the whole tumor burden of individuals in orthotopic tumor models is a desirable aim and requires non-invasive imaging methods. Here we investigated whether quantification of a xenograft tumor intrinsic fluorescence signal can be used to evaluate tumor growth and response to chemotherapy. Stably fluorescence protein (FP) expressing cell clones of colorectal carcinoma and germ cell tumor lines were generated by lentiviral transduction using the FPs eGFP, dsRed2, TurboFP635, and mPlum. Applying subcutaneous tumor models in different experimental designs, specific correlations between measured total fluorescence intensity (FI) and the tumor volume (V) could be established. The accuracy of correlation of FI and V varied depending on the cell model used. The application of deep-red FP expressing xenografts (TurboFP635, mPlum) was observed to result in improved correlations. This was also reflected by the results of a performed error analysis. In a model of visceral growing mPlum tumors, measurements of FI could be used to follow growth and response to chemotherapy. However, in some cases final necropsy revealed the existence of additional, deeper located tumors that had not been detected in vivo by their mPlum signal. Consistently, only the weights of the tumors that were detected in vivo based on their mPlum signal correlated with FI. In conclusion, as long as tumors are visualized by their fluorescence signal the FI can be used to evaluate tumor burden. Deep-red FPs are more suitable for in vivo applications as compared to eGFP and dsRed2.

Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) constitutes a common malignancy with limited therapeutic options in metastasized stages. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) home to tumours and may therefore serve as a novel therapeutic tool for intratumoral delivery of antineoplastic factors. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) which promises apoptosis induction preferentially in tumour cells represents such a factor. We generated TRAIL-MSC by transduction of human MSC with a third generation lentiviral vector system and analysed their characteristics and capacity to inhibit CRC growth. (1) TRAIL-MSC showed stable transgene expression with neither changes in the defining MSC characteristics nor signs of malignant transformation. (2) Upon direct in vitro coculture TRAIL-MSC induced apoptosis in TRAIL-sensitive CRC-cell lines (DLD-1 and HCT-15) but also in CRC-cell lines resistant to soluble TRAIL (HCT-8 and SW480). (3) In mixed subcutaneous (s.c.) xenografts TRAIL-MSC inhibited CRC-tumour growth presumably by apoptosis induction but a substantial proportion of TRAIL-MSC within the total tumour cell number was needed to yield such anti-tumour effect. (4) Systemic application of TRAIL-MSC had no effect on the growth of s.c. DLD-1 xenografts which appeared to be due to a pulmonary entrapment and low rate of tumour integration of TRAIL-MSC. Systemic TRAIL-MSC caused no toxicity in this model. (5) Wild-type MSC seemed to exert a tumour growth-supporting effect in mixed s.c. DLD-1 xenografts. These novel results support the idea that lentiviral TRAIL-transgenic human MSC may serve as vehicles for clinical tumour therapy but also highlight the need for further investigations to improve tumour integration of transgenic MSC and to clarify a potential tumour-supporting effect by MSC., (© 2009 The Authors Journal compilation © 2010 Foundation for Cellular and Molecular Medicine/Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

For various potential clinical applications, the use of autologous human MSCs (hMSCs) would be favorable. In vitro observations suggested that hMSCs are resistant for chemotherapeutic substances; however, no data exist on the characteristics of hMSCs from bone marrow (BM) of chemotherapeutically treated patients. Here, we analyzed the character of hMSCs derived from chemotherapy-exposed BM and the in vitro response of hMSCs to chemotherapeutic substances. Colony-forming units-fibroblast (CFU-Fs) were isolated from BM aspirates of patients after high-dose or standard chemotherapy and of donors with unaffected BM. CFU-Fs from chemotherapy-exposed and unaffected BM contained hMSCs with similar phenotype, proliferation capacity, and differentiation potential. No obvious influence of age, sex, or time since chemotherapy exposure on the presence and characteristics of hMSCs was observed. In vitro, hMSCs showed a significant resistance for cisplatin, vincristine, and etoposide compared with sensitive tumor cell lines, particularly at apoptosis-inducing doses. The phenotype and differentiation potential of hMSCs was not altered by genotoxic treatment under clinically relevant conditions in vitro. hMSCs showed an elevated threshold for cisplatin-induced apoptosis, which was characterized by a lack of caspase-9 activity in apoptotic cells. In vitro exposure of hMSCs to cisplatin, vincristine, and etoposide resulted in an increased p53 expression, independent of apoptosis induction. We conclude that hMSCs can be isolated from chemotherapy-exposed BM in sufficient number and quality for potential clinical applications in chemotherapeutically treated patients. Our data suggest that an elevated apoptotic threshold contributes not only to the persistence of hMSCs in the BM after chemotherapy but also to their lifelong presence in the adult BM.

Although the majority of testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) are curable by cisplatin-based chemotherapy, in a few cases, the occurrence of cisplatin resistance results in a poor outcome. The biological basis of this differential cisplatin sensitivity in TGCTs remains largely unexplained. Embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells represent the presumptive tumor stem cells in nonseminomatous TGCTs and are known to express the embryonal transcription factor Oct-3/4 and to be hypersensitive to cisplatin. In the present study, we analyzed TGCT cell lines and nude mouse xenografts showing differential cisplatin sensitivity. Here we demonstrate that a lack of expression of Oct-3/4 in TGCT cells is associated with a higher apoptotic threshold and cisplatin resistance which is accompanied by an impaired caspase-9 activation, reduced caspase-3 activity and altered p53 accumulation. We were able to induce loss of Oct-3/4 in a cisplatin-sensitive EC cell line resulting in a secondary cisplatin-resistant cell type with retained EC cell characteristics and changes in apoptotic signaling identical to those in primary resistant cells. Furthermore, we show that EC cells are retained in their undifferentiated state by Oct-3/4 and that a complete and ultimate loss of Oct-3/4 followed by an early differentiation step is necessary to establish the cisplatin-resistant state. Our data suggest that loss of Oct-3/4 expression leads to induction of a higher apoptotic threshold and to cisplatin resistance in EC cells of nonseminomatous TGCTs. We hypothesize that in refractory TGCTs the original tumor stem cell population of Oct-3/4-positive, cisplatin-sensitive EC cells could be replaced by an Oct-3/4-negative, resistant population in a selection process. In contrast, the presence of the Oct-3/4-positive, highly sensitive EC cells as the tumor stem cell component in most TGCTs could explain the general high chemosensitivity and curability of these tumors.