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Creative problem-solving can be impeded by mental impasses which are caused by fixation on associated but misguiding ideas. Recently, research has focused on the question of which processes might be involved in overcoming fixation and how it can be prevented from occurring altogether. In the present study, we investigated whether initially encoded fixation words can be forgotten by means of item-method directed forgetting, a procedure in which participants are presented with a series of items that are each followed by a remember cue or forget cue. Here, the series of items partly consisted of words that were misleadingly associated with compound remote associate problems that had to be solved later on. Two groups were compared: For one group, fixation words were followed by forget cues (fixation-F), whereas for the other group, they were followed by a remember cue (fixation-R). Results revealed three major findings: (1) The fixation-R group showed typical detrimental effects of fixation (i.e., impaired problem-solving performance), whereas there was no significant fixation effect in the fixation-F group, and (2) the magnitude of fixation was positively related to memory for fixation words. The present findings add to existing literature about how fixation negatively affects creative problem-solving and how it can be prevented by reducing the activation level of misleading thoughts., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The main characteristic of Moebius syndrome is a lack of facial expressions, which involves stigmatization in many social contexts. We examined whether an applicant with this syndrome would be rated lower in personnel selection despite having equal qualifications. In two experiments, participants rated two applicants. Ratings of an applicant with Moebius syndrome were significantly lower when videos of job interviews had been watched without giving information about the syndrome. However, ratings did not differ when still images had been presented accompanied by an audio track or when participants were informed about Moebius syndrome ahead of the video. Discriminatory decisions in personnel selection could be reduced by educating about stigma, here, a neurologically caused lack of facial expressions., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare not conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Digital neuropsychological tools for diagnosing neurodegenerative diseases in the older population are becoming more relevant and widely adopted because of their diagnostic capabilities. In this context, explicit memory is mainly examined. The assessment of implicit memory occurs to a lesser extent. A common measure for this assessment is the serial reaction time task (SRTT)., Objective: This study aims to develop and empirically test a digital tablet-based SRTT in older participants with cognitive impairment (CoI) and healthy control (HC) participants. On the basis of the parameters of response accuracy, reaction time, and learning curve, we measure implicit learning and compare the HC and CoI groups., Methods: A total of 45 individuals (n=27, 60% HCs and n=18, 40% participants with CoI-diagnosed by an interdisciplinary team) completed a tablet-based SRTT. They were presented with 4 blocks of stimuli in sequence and a fifth block that consisted of stimuli appearing in random order. Statistical and machine learning modeling approaches were used to investigate how healthy individuals and individuals with CoI differed in their task performance and implicit learning., Results: Linear mixed-effects models showed that individuals with CoI had significantly higher error rates (b=-3.64, SE 0.86; z=-4.25; P<.001); higher reaction times (F 1,41 =22.32; P<.001); and lower implicit learning, measured via the response increase between sequence blocks and the random block (β=-0.34; SE 0.12; t=-2.81; P=.007). Furthermore, machine learning models based on these findings were able to reliably and accurately predict whether an individual was in the HC or CoI group, with an average prediction accuracy of 77.13% (95% CI 74.67%-81.33%)., Conclusions: Our results showed that the HC and CoI groups differed substantially in their performance in the SRTT. This highlights the promising potential of implicit learning paradigms in the detection of CoI. The short testing paradigm based on these results is easy to use in clinical practice., (©Christian Mychajliw, Heiko Holz, Nathalie Minuth, Kristina Dawidowsky, Gerhard Wilhelm Eschweiler, Florian Gerhard Metzger, Franz Wortha. Originally published in JMIR Aging (https://aging.jmir.org), 21.03.2024.)

Previous research on the role of prior skills like proportional reasoning skills for the development of mathematical concepts offers conclusions such as "more (prior skills) is better (for later learning)." Insights, which prior skill level goes along with which level of learning outcomes, may advance the understanding of the development of mathematical concepts. An exploratory approach is presented based on level models to describe the relation between symbolic proportional reasoning skills and fraction outcomes beyond linearity. Analyses draw on samples of German fourth to sixth graders from a scaling (2017, N = 325, 54.8% female) and longitudinal study (2018/2019, N = 436, 42.7% female). Particularly mastering natural and internal rational ratios in proportional reasoning seems relevant for successful fraction learning., (© 2023 The Authors. Child Development published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society for Research in Child Development.)

A common issue in creative problem solving is the unintended fixation on strongly associated, yet inappropriate solutions. In two experiments, we investigated whether lowering their accessibility by means of selective retrieval can positively affect subsequent problem-solving performance in a Compound Remote Associate test. Misleading associates were strengthened by letting participants memorize them alongside with neutral words. Half of the participants then selectively retrieved the neutral words in a cued recall test, temporarily weakening the activation level of induced fixation. In both experiments, this resulted in less impairment of subsequent performance for fixated CRA problems in early problem-solving stages (0-30 s). Additional results further revealed that participants who had engaged in prior selective retrieval perceived an increased feeling of having had immediate access to target solutions. These findings correspond to the assumption of inhibitory processes being a critical factor in both retrieval-induced forgetting and overcoming fixation in creative problem solving or preventing it from occurring in the first place. Also, they provide important insight into how strongly problem solving success is influenced by fixation., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The saving of previously encoded information boosts both memory for subsequent information (saving-enhanced memory; SEM) as well as cognitive performance in general (saving-enhanced performance; SEP). These findings have been replicated in a setting that involves the assistance by an intelligent software that automatically structures and saves work content in an interactive sidebar. It is assumed that beneficial effects on cognitive performance due to (automatic) saving are caused by a reduction in current workload by means of cognitive offloading. We tested this assumption by measuring neural activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) via functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)-once after saving and once after deleting of previously collected information that had to be recalled later-on. On a behavioral level, there was a brief benefit of saving. However, cognitive offloading became most apparent on a neural level: after saving, participants showed significantly lower activation in the right DLPFC. Also, the more participants benefited from cognitive offloading, the more they were able to re-access previously collected, saved information. Thus, fNIRS results indicated reduced mental load after saving, confirming the assumption that saving triggers cognitive offloading., (© 2023. Springer Nature Limited.)

Multidimensional intelligence test batteries such as the KABC-II are widely used in clinical practice. Although validity evidence should be provided for all intended uses of a test, data on the factorial validity of the KABC-II mostly relies on the standardization samples and raises some concerns about the adequacy of the factor structure. Confirmatory factor analyses of the KABC-II core subtests were conducted in a sample of 627 children who had been assessed in German Centers for Social Pediatrics. The standard structure of the KABC-II was superior to unidimensional models but, as in previous research, evidenced cross-loadings and a high correlation between Planning/Gf and Simultaneous/Gv . Pattern Reasoning was more closely related to Simultaneous/Gv than to Planning/Gf . A four-factorial structure combining subtests from Planning/Gf and Simultaneous/Gv to form a common factor emerged as a better representation of the data. Story Completion showed a secondary loading on Knowledge/Gc . On average, most subtest variance was accounted for by the general factor. Models with bonus points for fast responses generally fitted worse than those without. Clinicians should be aware that Planning/Gf and Simultaneous/Gv measure both visual and fluid abilities. Scales of the KABC-II should not be interpreted as dimensions independent of the general factor.

Two experiments examined the effects of deliberately suppressing retrieval of motor sequences on their later recall, in the think/no-think paradigm (Anderson & Green, 2001). After several motor sequences had been associated with individual cues through repeated practice cycles, a subset of these sequences was retrieved in response to their respective cues (think trials), whereas other sequences were suppressed. In such no-think trials, cues were shown but participants were instructed to withhold the associated motor response and to suppress its recollection. We found that suppressing retrieval impaired later memory performance for the suppressed sequences in comparison to items that were not cued at all after their initial training (baseline sequences). Suppression impaired later sequence recall and sequence speed although in different ways depending on the training level: with higher initial training of sequences (Experiment 1), suppression impaired reaction time, but not recall accuracy; with lower initial training (Experiment 2), suppression reduced recall accuracy. Reaction time analyses revealed a consistent slowing of movement execution for suppressed sequences. These findings show that inhibitory control processes engaged during retrieval suppression can influence memory representations of motor actions, by not only reducing their accessibility but also by affecting their execution, once retrieved., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

We present arguments in favor of an interdisciplinary approach in mathematics education. As an instance, we briefly recall how cognitive neuropsychologists promoted intense finger gnosis acquisition, i.e., acquiring the ability to mentally represent one's fingers, at an early age. Mathematics educators definitely recommended the development of finger gnosis but examined its limits. They also presented arguments in favor of developing flexible mental calculation as a goal of arithmetical instruction in elementary school. In this context we describe the training of "Zahlenblick" as a way to foster flexible mental calculation and connect it with concepts from the theory of metacognition. We illustrate how precisely this branch of metacognition demands further interdisciplinary research. In our analysis, "Zahlenblick" extends to acquiring an eye for proportions, beyond just whole numbers. We illustrate how useful it would be to better understand the neural underpinnings responsible for the advantages of so-called natural frequencies, compared with percentages or probabilities, and of icon arrays for representing them. Such natural frequencies are adequate formats for the early confrontation with decision-making under risk., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Martignon and Rechtsteiner.)

The factor structure of the German edition of the KABC-II for ages 5 and 6 was examined in a clinical sample. Participants were 450 children ages 5 and 6 who had been assessed due to various behavioral, emotional, or developmental disorders in five Centers for Social Pediatrics (SPCs). Confirmatory factor analyses of the standard test structure including core subtests of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll model and of the Luria model were conducted using maximum likelihood estimation. Several modified structures derived from CHC ability classifications were evaluated. Second-order factor structures corresponding to the standard test structure of the KABC-II demonstrated an adequate global fit for both theoretical models and were superior to unidimensional models. The fit of bifactor models was comparable to second-order models. In all subtests, the general factor accounted for more variance than group factors (broad abilities). However, in more than half of the subtests, unique variance explained the largest portion of the variance. The scale Learning/Glr showed a lack of convergent validity. At age 6, a model omitting subtest Rover significantly improved the fit. In the combined sample of 5- and 6-year-old children, both second-order and bifactor models with nine subtests demonstrated excellent fit.

People regularly outsource parts of their memory onto external memory stores like computers or smartphones. Such cognitive offloading can enhance subsequent memory performance, as referred to the saving-enhanced memory effect (Storm & Stone, 2015). The cognitive mechanisms of this effect are not clear to date, however similarities to list-method directed forgetting (LMDF) have been stated. Here, we examined in 52 participants the electrophysiological (EEG) correlates of the saving-enhanced memory effect and compared our results to earlier LMDF findings (Hanslmayr et al., 2012). For this purpose, EEG alpha power and alpha phase synchrony during the encoding of two word lists were compared as a function of saving or no-saving. We hypothesised that if saving-enhanced memory was related to LMDF, saving in comparison to no-saving between lists should reduce alpha power and alpha phase synchrony during List 2 encoding, two effects that have been related to List 2 encoding benefits and List 1 inhibition in the earlier LMDF work. The results showed no statistically significant saving-enhanced memory effect and no significant effects in EEG alpha power or alpha phase synchrony. Possible explanations for and implications of these non-significant findings are discussed., (© 2021 The Authors. European Journal of Neuroscience published by Federation of European Neuroscience Societies and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

We examined selective directed forgetting in motor memory using a new variant of a three-list approach, to distinguish between accounts of directed forgetting. Participants consecutively studied three lists (L1, L2, and L3) of four sequential four-finger movements each. After studying L2, participants in the forget group were instructed to selectively forget the just studied four items of L2 but to retain the previously studied four items of L1, whereas the remember group did not receive any forget instruction for L2 but was encouraged to retain the items of both lists. In addition, we switched (switch groups) or repeated the items-enacting hand (no-switch groups) between L2 and L3 for a manipulation of post-forget-cue material competition for L2. A final memory test assessed recall performance for all three lists. Selective directed forgetting (lower L2 recall in the forget group as compared to the remember group) only occurred if the same hand was used for L2 and L3 (high interference between L2 and L3 encoding) whereas no selective directed forgetting occurred if the hand switched between L2 and L3 (low interference between L2 and L3 encoding). These results suggest that an inhibitory mechanism caused (selective) directed-forgetting costs that was triggered when items studied after the forget instruction had the potential to interfere with already stored items (i.e. were to be enacted by the same hand). When subsequently studied items pertained to the other hand no directed-forgetting costs occurred., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Cognitive inhibition has been suggested to deteriorate in Alzheimer's disease. While numerous studies with different experimental paradigms found evidence on impaired inhibition in attention and memory, evidence in favour of intact memory inhibition has been reported with regard to the phenomenon of retrieval-induced forgetting (Moulin et al., 2002). Here, we adapted the previously used paradigm in order to reduce the contribution of non-inhibitory processes and examined whether retrieval-induced forgetting could still be observed in a sample of participants with diagnosed Alzheimer's disease. In contrast to the previous finding, we found that retrieval-induced forgetting only occurred in an age-matched control group. These results suggest that inhibitory deficits in Alzheimer's disease also generalize to memory inhibition that resolves interference occurring during retrieval, whereas effects of retrieval-induced forgetting may still occur when non-inhibitory causes, such as, blocking by previously retrieved content, are not precluded., (© 2020 The Authors. Journal of Neuropsychology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Psychological Society.)

By saving information on external memory stores, we can offload temporarily irrelevant memories, we believe to be important in the future. The external saving of encoded items enhances subsequent memory performance for new information (Storm and Stone in Psychol Sci 26(2):182-188, 2015). Across three experiments, we replicated and specified this saving-enhanced memory effect. In Experiment 1, we replicated the benefits of saving and showed that they are robust against changes in instructions. In Experiment 2, we extended the saving-enhanced memory effect to motor material and more important, found evidence for better encoding after saving. In Experiment 3, a cost effect for saved verbal material was present, indicating that externally saving information can reduce the accessibility for this information afterwards. These findings suggest that at least two factors contribute to benefits of saving, better encoding and reduced interference at recall. Hereby, similarities of saving-enhanced memory to effects of the list-method directed forgetting phenomenon and useful implications for our daily information management are provided.

To examine influences of context changes between encoding and retrieval of motor sequences, we varied a number of encoding and retrieval features in a two lists approach. Participants consecutively learned two sets of three-finger movements at two different computer working places, all enacted with fingers of the right hand. We varied keyboard and display orientation, stimuli, background color, response keys, position of the hand, and the used PC between the two sets. A final free recall test comprised either the same context features as present during study of the first item set or the ones present during study of the second item set or novel test context features. Results showed significant differences in overall recall performance between test conditions, indicating that context features of study episodes guided retrieval of motor sequences. In addition, the number of recalled items varied as a function of output position. Test context elements comprising context features of the first item set study episode were associated with initially lower but subsequently nearby stable recall performance, whereas test features comprising context elements of the second item set study episode were associated with initially higher and subsequently decreasing recall performance. This implies that a context reinstatement for list-1 items during the test phase does not immediately enhance accessibility of those items. However, access is subsequently facilitated over the course of retrieval attempts., Competing Interests: The authors have no competing interests to declare., (Copyright: © 2021 The Author(s).)

The inverse relationship between test anxiety and test performance is commonly explained by test-anxious students' tendency to worry about a test and the consequences of failing. However, other cognitive facets of test anxiety have been identified that could account for this link, including interference by test-irrelevant thoughts and lack of confidence. In this study, we compare different facets of test anxiety in predicting test performance. Seven hundred thirty university students filled out the German Test Anxiety Inventory after completing a battery of standardized tests assessing general intelligence and mathematical competencies. Multiple regressions revealed that interference and lack of confidence but not worry or arousal explained unique variance in students' test performance. No evidence was found for a curvilinear relationship between arousal and performance. The present results call for revisiting the role of worries in explaining the test anxiety-performance link and can help educators to identify students who are especially at risk of underperforming on tests., Competing Interests: Conflict of InterestThe authors declare no competing interests., (© The Author(s) 2021.)

We investigated retrieval-induced forgetting of motor sequences in samples of Chinese participants. Retrieval-induced forgetting occurs when selective retrieval of a subset of information stored in memory causes forgetting for the non-retrieved rest. This phenomenon critically depends on the organised storage of separate categories of memory representations. In studies with participants from a Western culture (Germany), a categorization in left- and right-hand movements previously had been supported by letter stimuli based on a spatial mental representation of the Roman alphabet. The same assignment of letters from the beginning or end of the alphabet to motor sequences performed either with the left- or the right-hand did not entail retrieval-induced forgetting in the present study, however (Experiment 1). In Experiment 2, visual features of displaying to-be-learned sequences additionally supported a distinction into left and right. In Experiment 3, learning trials provided verbal category labels. The occurrence of retrieval-induced forgetting in the latter two experiments suggests language-dependent organisation of non-verbal items in memory., (© 2019 International Union of Psychological Science.)

According to attachment theory, internal working models of attachment affect the way in which social and emotional information is processed. The current study examined this theoretical claim by investigating the association between attachment security and attention to facial emotional expressions in 5-year-old children. Attachment security was assessed on a representational level using an Attachment Story Completion Task. Children's attention to facial emotional expressions was measured during an eye-tracking task. Gaze data (fixation duration) were collected during the presentation of pictures displaying five different facial emotional expressions (neutral, angry, fearful, sad, and happy) of unfamiliar persons. Moreover, the Emotionality-Activity-Sociability Temperament Inventory was used to control for children's temperament and was filled out by children's mothers. Regression analyses revealed that attachment security was a significant predictor of children's attention to neutral and sad expressions while controlling for age, gender, and temperament. Moreover, a t-test revealed that securely attached children looked longer at the fearful expression than insecurely attached children. These findings provide direct evidence that even on a basic perceptional level attachment security is a predictor of children's emotional information processing. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Attachment representations substantially affect the way in which emotional information is processed. Insecure attachment representations are negatively related to children's attention to emotional stimuli. What does this study add? Eye-tracking technology was used to measure children's visual attention to facial emotional expressions. Secure attachment was related to prolonged visual attention to neutral and negative facial emotional expressions. Attachment security influences children's emotional information processing even on a basic perceptual level., (© 2019 The Authors. British Journal of Developmental Psychology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Psychological Society.)

We investigated whether retrieval-based learning can facilitate the acquisition of cognitive skills, focusing on the control-of-variables strategy. This core scientific experimentation skill is regularly taught in science education classes because understanding it is essential for understanding experimental investigations in science. In the present study, participants initially read a text explaining the control-of-variables strategy. We compared the effects of subsequent retrieval practice and restudy of the text in performing a transfer test requiring the application of the control-of-variables strategy by judging the validity of a number of experimental designs. In addition, recall of the initially studied text was assessed as well. Repeated retrieval practice in combination with restudy opportunities resulted in better performance in both the transfer test and the recall test as compared to mere restudy or a single study opportunity. These findings demonstrate that retrieval practice is a useful tool for promoting deep conceptual learning.

Beta power increase has been suggested to be an electrophysiological marker of response inhibition during voluntary action stopping. We examined whether beta power increase accompanies inhibition in human motor memory, focusing the phenomenon of retrieval-induced forgetting that has been assumed to be the consequence of inhibition in memory. Whereas most studies on this effect comprise word materials, a variant of the retrieval-induced-forgetting paradigm exists for examining motor memory. In the present study, we recorded scalp EEG during this motor-specific variant and examined EEG oscillatory correlates of retrieval-induced slowing of motor actions. Here, forgetting occurred in the form of significant slowing when executing motor sequences in a final recall test. Participants first learned to associate memory cues to sequential finger movements, half of which were performed with the left hand and half with the right hand. They then selectively retrieval-practiced half of the items of one hand before finally memory for all items was tested. On a behavioral level, selective retrieval practice induced slower execution of the non-retrieved items of the retrieval-practiced hand in a final memory test. On a physiological level, this retrieval-induced-slowing effect was predicted by an increase of EEG beta power during retrieval practice. The results suggest that motor retrieval-induced forgetting is a consequence of inhibition in human memory., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Impulsive behaviours occurring as a central deficit in connection with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are associated with social and academic impairment in children. Whereas impulsivity was shown to be related to both delay aversion and deficient timing skills, the mutual relation between the latter two has hardly been investigated. The present study therefore examined the interplay of delay aversion, timing skills, and impulsivity in a sample of eighty-eight children aged between seven and fourteen, twenty-one of them diagnosed with ADHD. Children participated in a delay aversion and a tapping task, while parents reported about their impulsiveness. The results showed that both delay aversion and deficient timing skills were related to impulsivity. Contrasting prior assumptions, delay aversion and timing skills were also shown to be related, even when controlling for impulsivity. Implications for interventions aiming to reduce children's impulsivity as well as methodological considerations regarding whether to view ADHD as a category or a continuum are discussed.

By saving and storing information, we use digital devices as our external memory stores, being able to offload and temporarily forget saved contents. Storm and Stone [2015. Saving-enhanced memory: The benefits of saving on the learning and remembering of new information. Psychological Science , 26 (2), 182-188] showed that such memory offloading can be beneficial for subsequent memory performance. Saving already encoded items enhanced recall of items encoded after saving. In the present study, we did not only replicate saving-enhanced memory but found saving-enhanced performance for unrelated cognitively demanding tasks. Participants solved more modular arithmetic problems when they were able to offload a previously studied word list, compared to trials without the possibility to offload. Thus, saving of recently encoded items entailed a general benefit on subsequent cognitive performance, beyond encoding and retrieving word lists. We assume that offloading frees participants from the need to maintain offloaded items. Gained resources can then be used for subsequent tasks with high cognitive demands. In a nutshell, memory offloading can help to reduce the amount of information that has to be processed at a given time, efficiently delegating our limited cognitive resources to the most relevant tasks at hand while currently irrelevant information are safely stored outside our own memory.

In two experiments, we investigated intentional forgetting of problem-solving routines by adapting the list method of directed forgetting. In Experiment 1, participants practiced solving water-jar problems (Luchins, 1942). After working on a first series of problems that all could be solved by the same formula, one group of participants was instructed to forget the so-far presented items because these, allegedly, had only served as a warm-up, whereas another group did not receive a forget instruction. After practicing a different routine in a second series of problems, participants solved test problems that either could be solved by the formula previously practiced in the first or in the second series of problems. All test problems alternatively could be solved by a more direct formula. The forget instruction significantly reduced the number of test problems solved by the formula of the first series of practice problems. In Experiment 2, participants subsequently practiced two solution formulas in two series of to-be-solved anagrams. Here, a forget instruction regarding the first series of practice anagrams reduced solution speed for test anagrams that had to be solved by the same formula as the to-be-forgotten practice anagrams. Thus, in both experiments, participants relied less on a practiced routine after they had been instructed to intentionally forget the episode of acquiring that routine., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

We investigated how retrieval of a set of newly learned motor sequences influences subsequent learning of another set of motor sequences. In four experiments, retrieval reduced an acceleration of movement execution over subsequent study trials. This relative slowing-down was associated with better recall performance in a final memory test. Explicit retrievability of motor sequences benefited from longer study-trial response times (RTs), suggesting that retrieval caused more attentive encoding. The use of motor sequences requiring overt action during encoding allowed for this demonstration of a twofold forward effect of testing on encoding quality and on recall. Experiment 1 adopted a paradigm used in previous studies with verbal materials. Experiment 2 changed the test format to be less susceptible to interference. Experiments 3 and 4 additionally switched from a between-participants design to a within-participants design. These modifications did not affect the occurrence of the twofold forward effect of testing but enabled detecting a correlation between recall and study-trial performance that had been precluded by the strongly interference-dependent test format of the original paradigm. Our findings demonstrate an immediate learning benefit of testing. It enhances encoding in subsequent study trials.

To achieve a better understanding of entrepreneurship development in women, longitudinal data on 672 individuals collected from 1922 to 1959 were analysed in a secondary investigation of the Terman Longitudinal Study. Women's reports on their occupations during 10 different years were assigned to one of two categories: work for pay (0/1), and work allowing for self-employment (0/1) in the respective year. Structural equation modelling supported earlier results concerning male entrepreneurial activity. Personality and aspects of the parenting context the women had experienced by the average age of 12 predicted early entrepreneurial competencies (inventions, leadership) and occupational interests by age 13, which related to an entrepreneurship-related career goal in 1936, when the participants were about 27 years of age on average. Such a career goal in turn predicted a higher number of occasions of entrepreneurship-prone work. Surprisingly, we also found a relationship to divorce. Women who had experienced the failure of a marriage were in occupations with a potential for entrepreneurship more often. Reasons are discussed against a backdrop of historical timing and current findings to identify general aspects of entrepreneurship development., (© 2017 International Union of Psychological Science.)

Health literacy is a significant resource for daily life in society. Global evidence reveals that there are less than ideal levels of health literacy in populations. One potential straproviding them with the skills and tools that will improve their knowledge and practice as our future workforce. The purpose of this study was to articulate the need to develop an online health literacy introductory course for university students in Germany. A total of 16 students from two German universities participated in focus group interviews to collect data on the extent of student health literacy awareness and related health and education needs. Nine international stakeholders participated in an online self-guided review of a comprehensive draft course to obtain detailed feedback from experts in the education and health literacy fields. Results revealed that both focus group and international stakeholders are in support of developing an online health literacy curriculum. To build the draft curriculum, an existing Canadian health literacy online course was adapted as a blueprint for the German context. The proposed course was customized based on the findings from the focus groups and international stakeholder feedback, which is intended to help inform and determine contents, design, and delivery of such a course applicable for universities in Germany and beyond.

We examined how the provision of feedback affected two separate effects of retrieval practice: strengthening of practiced information and forgetting of related, unpracticed information. Feedback substantially increased recall of retrieval-practiced items. This unsurprising result shows once again that restudy opportunities boost the benefits of testing. In contrast, retrieval-induced forgetting was unaffected by the manipulation and occurred in equal size with or without feedback. These findings demonstrate strength independence of retrieval-induced forgetting and thus support a theoretical account assuming that an inhibitory mechanism causes retrieval-induced forgetting. According to this theory, inhibition resolves competition that arises during retrieval attempts but is unrelated to the consequences of retrieval practice concerning practiced items. The present results match these assumptions and contradict the theoretical alternative that blocking by strengthened information might explain retrieval-induced forgetting. We discuss our findings against the background of previous studies.