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In this study, we investigated the influence of mixture design on the chemical profile of Eugenia unifloraleaves, evaluating the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, the toxic and hemolytic potential, with the focus on the improvement of the polyphenol’s extraction for incorporation of the extract in semi-solid forms with antifungal action. The chemical analysis was evaluated by UV-Vis and HPLC. The antimicrobial, antioxidant, and hemolytic activities were monitored. The flavonoid content ranged from 2.63-7.98 %w/w and tannins from 5.42-18.29 %w/w. The extract consisted of gallic acid (0.09-1.29%; w/w), ellagic acid (0.09-0.37%; w/w), and myricitrin (0.18-1.20%; w/w). The most successful solvent system with the highest level of active extract was water: ethanol: propylene glycol. The extracts showed fungicidal properties (3.9 μg/mL), high antioxidant activity (IC50: 9.50 μg/mL), and low toxicity. These solvent mixtures can improve the in vitro bioactivities when compared to pure solvents and this result demonstrates the importance of mixture designs as useful tools for creating high-quality herbal products and elucidate the potential of E. unifloraglycolic extracts as active herbal pharmaceutical ingredients in topical delivery systems.

Cisplatin treatment is one of the most commonly used treatments for patients with cancer. However, thirty percent of patients treated with cisplatin develop acute kidney injury (AKI). Several studies have demonstrated the effect of bioactive vitamin D or calcitriol on the inflammatory process and endothelial injury, essential events that contribute to changes in renal function and structure caused by cisplatin (CP). This study explored the effects of calcitriol administration on proximal tubular injury, oxidative stress, inflammation and vascular injury observed in CP-induced AKI. Male Wistar Hannover rats were pretreated with calcitriol (6 ng/day) or vehicle (0.9% NaCl). The treatment started two weeks before i.p. administration of CP or saline and was maintained for another five days after the injections. On the fifth day after the injections, urine, plasma and renal tissue samples were collected to evaluate renal function and structure. The animals of the CP group had increased plasma levels of creatinine and of fractional sodium excretion and decreased glomerular filtration rates. These changes were associated with intense tubular injury, endothelial damage, reductions in antioxidant enzymes and an inflammatory process observed in the renal outer medulla of the animals from this group. These changes were attenuated by treatment with calcitriol, which reduced the inflammation and increased the expression of vascular regeneration markers and antioxidant enzymes.

Renal endothelial cell (EC) injury and microvascular dysfunction contribute to chronic kidney disease (CKD). In recent years, increasing evidence has suggested that EC undergoes an endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndoMT), which might promote fibrosis. Adriamycin (ADR) induces glomerular endothelial dysfunction, which leads to progressive proteinuria in rodents. The activation of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) plays a crucial role in endothelial function modulation, cell differentiation, and suppression of the expression of fibrotic markers by regulating the production of nitric oxide (NO) by activating the endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) in the kidneys. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of paricalcitol treatment on renal endothelial toxicity in a model of CKD induced by ADR in rats and explore mechanisms involved in EC maintenance by eNOS/NO, angiopoietins (Angs)/endothelium cell-specific receptor tyrosine kinase (Tie-2, also known as TEK) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) axis. The results show that paricalcitol attenuated the renal damage ADR-induced with antiproteinuric effects, glomerular and tubular structure, and function protection. Furthermore, activation of the VDR promoted the maintenance of the function and structure of glomerular, cortical, and external medullary endothelial cells by regulating NO production. In addition, it suppressed the expression of the mesenchymal markers in renal tissue through attenuation of (transforming growth factor-beta) TGF-β1/Smad2/3-dependent and downregulated of Ang-2/Tie-2 axis. It regulated the VEGF/VEGFR2 pathway, which was ADR-deregulated. These effects were associated with lower AT1 expression and VDR recovery to renal tissue after paricalcitol treatment. Our results showed a protective role of paricalcitol in the renal microvasculature that could be used as a target for treating the beginning of CKD.

Eugenia uniflora Linn (Myrtaceae) is the native species of Brazil. The leaves of this species are used in folk medicine to treat different inflammatory and gastrointestinal disorders. However, research on the safety of using E. uniflora leaves has been poorly explored.This approach aims to investigate the phytochemical composition as well as the acute, subacute toxicity, and in vivo genotoxic profile of the aqueous extract of E. uniflora leaves.The chemical composition of E. uniflora leaf extract was determined by Fingerprint by High-Performance Thin Layer and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography. The acute toxicity in vivo was evaluated for 14 days after the administration of E. uniflora leaves extract (2000 mg/kg). For the evaluation of subacute toxicity, mice were daily treated for 28 days with E. uniflora extract (250, 500, or 1000 mg/kg). Signs of behavioral toxicity and biochemical and hematological alterations, including the multiple organ toxicities were investigated. In addition, the micronucleus assay was used to evaluate the in vivo genotoxicity of the leaves extract in murine erythrocytes.The phytochemical analysis showed the majority presence of phenolic compounds (gallic acid, ellagic acid, and myricitrin). Single or repeated doses of the aqueous extract of E. uniflora leaves did not reveal any signs of in vivo toxicity. Daily doses of the extract for 28 days induced a slight reduction in cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Furthermore, E. uniflora leaves extract (1000-2000 mg/kg) showed no genetic damage in the micronucleus assay, indicating the absence of genotoxicity of the herbal species.The aqueous extract of E. uniflora leaves showed a predominance of phenolic compounds, with non-toxic and non-genotoxic action in vivo. This approach sheds light on the chemical composition of the leaves of E. uniflora and suggests a high margin of safety in the popular use of the leaves of this plant species.

Aging is a complex biological process, resulting in gradual and progressive decline in structure and function in many organ systems. Our objective is to determine if structural changes produced by aging vary with sex in a stressful situation such as dehydration. The expression of Slc12a3 mRNA in the renal cortex, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), and fibronectin was evaluated in male and female rats, aged 3 and 18 months, submitted and not submitted to water deprivation (WD) for 48 h, respectively. When comparing ages, 18-month-old males showed a lower expression of Slc12a3 mRNA than 3-month-old males, and control and WD 18-month-old male and female rats exhibited a higher expression of α-SMA than the respective 3-month-old rats. Fibronectin was higher in both control and WD 18-month-old males than the respective 3-month-old males. In females, only the control 18-month-old rats showed higher fibronectin than the control 3-month-old rats. When we compared sex, control and WD 3-month-old female rats had a lower expression of Slc12a3 mRNA than the respective males. The WD 18-month-old male rats presented a higher expression of fibronectin and α-SMA than the WD 18-month-old female rats. When we compared hydric conditions, the WD 18-month-old males displayed a lower relative expression of Slc12a3 mRNA and higher α-SMA expression than the control 18-month-old males. Aging, sex, and dehydration lead to alterations in kidney structure.

This paper will discuss the approximation of modern natural law in contemporary environmental discussions. To this end, the present text will contain two moments: we will first start from the theory of natural law elaborated by the Dutch philosopher and jurist Hugo Grotius. In his theory, Grotius argues that the seas and waters should be used collectively, as opposed to any monopolistic form. Following this, we will approach the theory of two contemporary authors, Canadian activist Maude Barlow and Indian philosopher Vandana Shiva. In their works, they criticize contemporary privatist intentions, allied to the defense of their collective use, with ethical principles that are close to natural law.

Adverse events during fetal life such as insufficient protein intake or elevated transfer of glucocorticoid to the fetus may impact cardiovascular and metabolic health later in adult life and are associated with increased incidence of type 2 diabetes, ischemic heart disease and hypertension. Several adverse factors converge and suppress the fetal renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS). The aim of this review is to summarize data on the significance of RAAS for kidney development and adult hypertension. Genetic inactivation of RAAS in rodents at any step from angiotensinogen to angiotensin II (ANGII) type 1 receptor (AT1) receptors or pharmacologic inhibition leads to complex developmental injury to the kidneys that has also been observed in human case reports. Deletion of the ‘protective’ arm of RAAS, angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) 2 (ACE-2) and G-protein coupled receptor for Angiotensin 1–7 (Mas) receptor does not reproduce the AT1 phenotype. The changes comprise fewer glomeruli, thinner cortex, dilated tubules, thicker arterioles and arteries, lack of vascular bundles, papillary atrophy, shorter capillary length and volume in cortex and medulla. Altered activity of systemic and local regulators of fetal-perinatal RAAS such as vitamin D and cyclooxygenase (COX)/prostaglandins are associated with similar injuries. ANGII–AT1 interaction drives podocyte and epithelial cell formation of vascular growth factors, notably vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and angiopoietins (Angpts), which support late stages of glomerular and cortical capillary growth and medullary vascular bundle formation and patterning. RAAS-induced injury is associated with lower glomerular filtration rate (GFR), lower renal plasma flow, kidney fibrosis, up-regulation of sodium transporters, impaired sodium excretion and salt-sensitive hypertension. The renal component and salt sensitivity of programmed hypertension may impact dietary counseling and choice of pharmacological intervention to treat hypertension.

Alterations in the renal vasculature during fetal programming can cause disturbances in renal structure and function that persist into adulthood. Calcitriol can affect cellular differentiation and proliferation, and promote endothelial cell maintenance, each of which is a key event in nephrogenesis. Calcitriol is a negative endocrine regulator of the renin gene. Rats exposed to renin-angiotensin system (RAS) antagonists during lactation have been shown to develop renal disorders, which demonstrated that the RAS may play an important role in mammalian kidney development. We evaluated the effects of calcitriol administration on losartan [angiotensin II receptor antagonist (ANGII), AT1]-induced changes in renal differentiation in rats during lactation. Rats treated with losartan showed alterations in renal function and structure that persisted into adulthood. These disruptions included hydronephrosis, papillary atrophy, endothelial dysfunction, and aberrant endothelial structure. These changes were mitigated by treatment with calcitriol. The results of our study showed that animals exposed to AT1 blockade during lactation exhibited altered renal microvasculature differentiation in adulthood that was attenuated by treatment with calcitriol.

Calcitriol has important effects on cellular differentiation and proliferation, as well as on the regulation of the renin gene. Disturbances in renal development can be observed in rats exposed to angiotensin II (AngII) antagonists during lactation period. The lack of tubular differentiation in losartan-treated rats can affect calcitriol uptake. This study evaluated the effect of calcitriol administration in renal development disturbances in rats provoked by losartan (AngII type 1 receptor antagonist) administration during lactation. Animals exposed to losartan presented higher albuminuria, systolic blood pressure, increased sodium and potassium fractional excretion, and decreased glomerular filtration rate compared to controls. These animals also showed a decreased glomerular area and a higher interstitial relative area from the renal cortex, with increased expression of fibronectin, alpha-SM-actin, vimentin, and p-JNK; and an increased number of macrophages, p-p38, PCNA and decreased cubilin expression. Increased urinary excretion of MCP-1 and TGF-β was also observed. All these alterations were less intense in the losartan + calcitriol group.The animals treated with calcitriol showed an improvement in cellular differentiation, and in renal function and structure. This effect was associated with reduction of cell proliferation and inflammation.

Glycerol injection in rats can lead to rhabdomyolysis, with the release of the intracellular muscle content to the extracellular compartment and acute kidney injury (AKI). Oxidative stress and the inflammatory processes contribute to the disturbances in renal function and structure observed in this model. This study evaluated the effect of calcitriol administration in AKI induced by rhabdomyolysis and its relationship with oxidative damage and inflammatory process. Male Wistar Hannover rats were treated with calcitriol (6 ng/day) or vehicle (0.9% NaCl) for 7 days and were injected with 50% glycerol or saline 3 days after the beginning of calcitriol or saline administration. Four days after glycerol or saline injection, urine, plasma and renal tissue samples were collected for renal function and structural analysis. The oxidative stress and the inflammatory processes were also evaluated. Glycerol-injected rats presented increased sodium fractional excretion and decreased glomerular filtration rates. These alterations were associated with tubular injury in the renal cortex. These animals also presented increased oxidative damage, apoptosis, inflammation, higher urinary excretion of vitamin D-binding protein and decreased cubilin expression in renal tissue. All these alterations were less intense in calcitriol-treated animals. This effect was associated with decreases in oxidative damage and inflammation.

The mechanisms involved in kidney disturbances during development, induced by vitamin D3 deficiency in female rats, that persist into adulthood were evaluated in this study. Female offspring from mothers fed normal (control group, n=8) or vitamin D-deficient (Vit.D-, n=10) diets were used. Three-month-old rats had their systolic blood pressure (SBP) measured and their blood and urine sampled to quantify vitamin D3 (Vit.D3), creatinine, Na+, Ca+2 and angiotensin II (ANGII) levels. The kidneys were then removed for nitric oxide (NO) quantification and immunohistochemical studies. Vit.D- pups showed higher SBP and plasma ANGII levels in adulthood (PPP

Vitamin D (Vit.D) is involved in cellular proliferation and differentiation and regulation of the renin gene, which are important aspects of nephrogenesis and quiescence of renal health in adulthood. This study evaluated the angiogenic mechanisms involved in long term renal disturbances induced by Vit.D deficiency persistent in adulthood in rats. First-generation male Hannover offspring from mothers fed either a control diet (control group, CG) or Vit.D-deficient diet (Vit.D- group) were evaluated. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was measured monthly during the first 6 months after birth, and blood and urine samples were collected to evaluate renal function. Nitric oxide (NO), angiotensin II (ANGII), parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcium, and Vit.D were measured. The kidneys were then removed for morphometric, NO, immunohistochemical, and Western blot studies. We evaluated the expression of vascular growth factor (VEGF) and angiopoietins 1 and 2 and their receptors since this intrinsic renal axis is responsible for endothelial quiescence. Compared to CG, the Vit.D- group presented higher SBP, ANG II plasma levels, renin expression, and AT1 receptor expression levels. Capillary rarefaction was observed, as well as an imbalance between pro- and anti-angiogenic factors. Collectively, the present findings support the role of Vit.D for maintaining the integrity of renal microcirculation.

The mechanisms by which excessive ingestion of fluoride (F) during amelogenesis leads to dental fluorosis (DF) are still not precisely known. Inbred strains of mice vary in their susceptibility to develop DF, and therefore permit the investigation of underlying molecular events influencing DF severity. We employed a proteomic approach to characterize and evaluate changes in protein expression from secretory-stage and maturation-stage enamel in 2 strains of mice with different susceptibilities to DF (A/J, i.e. ‘susceptible' and 129P3/J, i.e. ‘resistant'). Weanling male and female susceptible and resistant mice fed a low-F diet were divided into 2 F-water treatment groups. They received water containing 0 (control) or 50 mg F/l for 6 weeks. Plasma and incisor enamel was analyzed for F content. For proteomic analysis, the enamel proteins extracted for each group were separated by 2-dimensional electrophoresis and subsequently characterized by liquid-chromatography electrospray-ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. F data were analyzed by 2-way ANOVA and Bonferroni's test (p < 0.05). Resistant mice had significantly higher plasma and enamel F concentrations when compared with susceptible mice in the F-treated groups. The proteomic results for mice treated with 0 mg F/l revealed that during the secretory stage, resistant mice had a higher abundance of proteins than their susceptible counterparts, but this was reversed during the maturation stage. Treatment with F greatly increased the number of protein spots detected in both stages. Many proteins not previously described in enamel (e.g. type 1 collagen) as well as some uncharacterized proteins were identified. Our findings reveal new insights regarding amelogenesis and how genetic background and F affect this process.

Excessive sodium (Na+) intake in modern society has been associated with several chronic disorders such as hypertension. Several studies suggest that early life events can program physiological systems and lead to functional changes in adulthood. Therefore, we investigated behavioral and neuroendocrine responses under basal conditions and after 48 h of water deprivation in adult (60-day-old Wistar rats) male, Wistar rats originating from dams were offered only water or 0.15 mol/L NaCl during pregnancy and lactation. Early life salt exposure induced kidney damage, as shown by a higher number of ED-1 positive cells (macrophages/monocytes), increased daily urinary volume and Na+ excretion, blunted basal water intake and plasma oxytocin levels, and increased plasma corticosterone secretion. When challenged with water deprivation, animals exposed to 0.15 mol/L NaCl during early life showed impaired water intake, reduced salt preference ratio, and vasopressin (AVP) secretion. In summary, our data demonstrate that the perinatal exposure to excessive Na+ intake can induce kidney injury in adult offspring and significantly affect the key mechanisms regulating water balance, fluid intake, and AVP release in response to water deprivation. Collectively, these novel results highlight the impact of perinatal programming on the homeostatic mechanisms regulating fluid and electrolyte balance during exposure to an environmental stress (i.e. dehydration) in later life. Fil: Silva, Marcia S.. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil Fil: Lúcio Oliveira, Fabiana. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil Fil: Mecawi, Andre Souza. University of Malaya; Malasia Fil: Almeida, Lucas F.. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil. Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro; Brasil Fil: Ruginsk, Silvia G.. Federal University of Alfenas; Brasil Fil: Greenwood, Michael P.. University of Bristol; Reino Unido Fil: Greenwood, Mingkwan. University of Bristol; Reino Unido Fil: Vivas, Laura Marta. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales; Argentina Fil: Elias, Lucila L. K.. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil Fil: Murphy, David. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil. Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro; Brasil Fil: Antunes Rodrigues, José. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil

Ratos expostos a antagonistas da angiotensina II no período da lactação apresentam alterações no desenvolvimento renal que persistem na vida adulta promovendo distúrbios progressivos da estrutura e função renal. Esse estudo caracteriza-se por analisar a influência da 1,25-(OH)2-D3 (Vitamina D3) (calcitriol) nas alterações da nefrogênese induzidas pelo bloqueio dos receptores de angiotensina AT1 no período da lactação. Ratos Wistar machos foram divididos em quatro grupos: 1- controle, filhotes de mães que receberam solução de sacarose a 2%; 2- controle+Vit. D, filhotes de mães que receberam solução sacarose a 2% e após o período de lactação (25 dias incluindo o período adaptativo) receberam Vit.D (6ng/dia, calcitriol-abbott); 3- losartan, filhotes de mães que receberam losartan (100 mg/kg/dia) diluído em sacarose 2%; 4- losartan+Vit.D, filhotes de mães que receberam losartan (100 mg/kg/dia) diluído em sacarose 2% e após a lactação (25 dias incluindo o período adaptativo) receberam calcitriol (6ng/dia). O losartan foi diluído em uma solução de sacarose a 2% e administrado em substituição a água (no bebedouro) durante a lactação, enquanto que a Vit. D foi administrada através de mini-osmotic pump (Model 2004 alzet) implantados na região dorsal subctânea 4 dias após o final do período de lactação e mantido durante 28 dias. A pressão arterial sistólica foi aferida 28 dias após a introdução da Vit. D. Em seguida, foram coletadas amostras de sangue e urina das proles para avaliação da função renal e os rins removidos para estudos histológicos, imunoistoquímicos, morfométricos e ELISA. Os ratos expostos ao losartan durante a lactação apresentaram aumento da pressão arterial sistólica (PAS) e alterações de função e estrutura renal caracterizada por aumento do volume urinário, da fração de excreção de sódio e potássio, proteinúria, aumento da área intersticial relativa do córtex renal, atrofia dos túbulos renais, fibrose, inflamação intersticial e diminuição da taxa de filtração glomerular (TFG) e osmolalidade urinária. O tratamento com Vit.D após o período de lactação atenuou as alterações da pressão arterial sistólica, taxa de filtração glomerular, fração de excreção de sódio e potássio, proteinúria, área intersticial relativa e área glomerular relativa, evidenciando efeito protetor nos distúrbios da formação renal e na inflamação. Concluindo, o tratamento com Vit.D introduzido após o término da lactação reduziu as alterações da PAS, da estrutura e função renal induzidas pelo losartan, essas alterações estavam associadas aos distúrbios na diferenciação celular e inflamação que persistiram durante a vida adulta. Rats exposed to angiotensin II (AII) antagonists during lactation present progressive disturbances in renal development leading to alterations in function and structure that persist and progresses in adult life. This study evaluated the effect of Vitamin D (1,25- (OH) 2-D3) (calcitriol) in the disturbances of renal development provoked by losartan, a AT1 antagonist of AII, exposure during lactation in renal function and structure as well in systolic blood pressure (SBP). Male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: Group 1: control, pups from dams that received 2% sucrose solution; Group 2: control+Vit. D, pups from dams that received sucrose solution 2% and Vit.D (6ng / day) after lactation period (25 days including adaptation period); Group 3: losartan, pups from mothers that received losartan (100 mg / kg / day) diluted in sucrose 2% and Group 4: losartan+Vit.D, pups from mothers who received losartan (100 mg / kg / day) diluted in sucrose 2% and calcitriol (6 ng/ day) after lactation period (25 days including adaptation period). Losartan was administered diluted in drinking water in sucrose solution 2% and Vit. D administered by mini-osmotic pump. Treatment with losartan was conducted during all lactation, while Vit.D was introduced after lactation and maintained during the next 28 days. Then SBP was measured and blood and urine samples were collected of the offspring for the evaluation of renal function and kidney removed for histological, immunohistochemical, morphometric, and ELISA studies. Rats exposed to losartan during lactation showed higher SBP in adulthood life. They also had disturbances in renal function and structure in adulthood. These alterations were characterized by increased urinary volume, fractional sodium and potassium excretion, proteinuria, interstitial area from the renal cortex, renal tubule atrophy, fibrosis, interstitial inflammation and decrease glomerular filtration rate and (GFR) urinary osmolality. In conclusion, treatment with Vit.D after lactation attenuated the increase in SBP and the reduction in sodium and potassium fractional excretion and GFR, of interstitial area. The protector effect of this vitamin D was associated to the reduction of the disturbances in inflammation, cell differentiation and proliferation that persist in adulthood life.

Kasper Aanaes Shawn Aaron Janice Abbott Frank Accurso Moira Aitken Michael Anstead Robert Aris Deborah Baines Jennifer Bartlett Tara Barto Ivan Bastian Jeffrey Beekman Scott Bell William Bennett Ariel Benson Paul Beringer Ariel Berlinski Jocelyn Bescond Julie Biller Diana Bilton Scott Blackman Hannah Blau Cristina Bombieri Richard Boucher Frederic Bouillaud Stephen Bourke Cynthia Brady Michelle Brotherwood Emanuela Bruscia Mandy Bryon Lucy Burr Chris Burtin Andre Cantin Rafael Canton Giussepe Castaldo Carlo Castellani Daniel Chambers Christine Chan Denmark Canada United Kingdom United States United States United States United States United Kingdom United States United States Australia Netherlands Australia United States Israel United States United States France United States United Kingdom United States Israel Italy United States France United Kingdom United States Canada United States United Kingdom Australia Belgium Canada Spain Italy Italy Australia United States Anne Chang Marc Chanson W Winn Chatham Jocelyn Choo Sanjay Chotirmall Oana Ciofu Natalia Cirilli John Clancy Lane Clarke Rubin Cohen Gary Connett Janet Crane Patrick Daigneault Jeannette Dankert-Roelse Elliott Dasenbrook Kausik Datta Peter Davies Gwyneth Davies Frans De Baets RC De Lisle Agnes Delaunay-Moisan Elisabeth Dellon Rajendar Deora Nico Derichs Gill Diamond Antonio DiGiandomenico G. Dimitriou Anh-Tuan Dinh-Xuan John Dodge Scott Donaldson Alistair Duff Helen Egan Olaf Eickmeier Joseph Elborn Marielle Engelen Tom Evans Pascale Fanen Albert Faro Australia Switzerland United states Australia Singapore Denmark Italy United States United States United States United Kingdom United States Canada Netherlands United States United States Australia United Kingdom Belgium United States France United States United States Germany United States United States Greece France United Kingdom United States United Kingdom United Kingdom Germany United Kingdom United States United Kingdom France United States