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An enormous amount of research and debate on innovative teaching and learning strategies has gone on over the last three decades (e.g. The Higher Education Academy (HEA), 2013; Dearnley, McClelland & Irving, 2013; Hannan, English & Silver, 1999, 2000). HEA rightly champions excellence in innovative teaching and learning across the higher education sector. The Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) takes a monitoring role with the aim of ensuring that all higher education (HE) students benefit from a high-quality learning experience that fully meets their needs and the needs of society. The critical issue is not so much about governing bodies and frameworks, rather it is about the individual tutor’s enthusiasm and how such enthusiasm can inspire active learning. It is also worth recognising that some topics, such as Conceptual and Historical Issues in Psychology (CHIP) can be potentially boring. Such topics require enthusiastic tutors with innovative approaches to teaching and learning. The CHIP module delivered at the University of Derby uses dialectic debates to enhance students’ learning experience. No assumption is made here that dialectic debates are the only innovative approach as other papers in this volume show. We chose dialectic debate because of its potential for interactivity and critical thinking. The dialectic method (dialectics) has its roots in philosophy (e.g. Hegelian dialectic) where it encouraged critical analysis of propositions, counter-propositions and the synthesis of new insights. For dialectic debates to succeed the teaching and learning strategy has to be very different from traditional didactic approaches. For example, trying to be interactive by simply asking questions may end up with uncomfortable silence as students may not be actively engaging with the course material. To create the atmosphere and aura of the dialectic debate both authors undertake team teaching with the specific aim of giving students thesis and antithesis. Students on the CHIP module are very familiar with two tutors presenting a lecture based on its thesis and antithesis.This approach builds on to include at least one dialectic debate given by the whole module teaching team. This is used as an example which is then followed in subsequent weeks by student’s own dialectic debates. So far this has been the most successful and enjoyable learning experience as stated by students themselves. This paper will briefly look at the monitoring role of HEFCE in relation to innovative teaching and learning. Attention will then turn to the nature and use of dialectic debate as part of the innovative approach to teaching CHIP at the University of Derby. An example of the typical CHIP module as it is run at the University of Derby will be offered including some of the essential guides shared by students and teaching staff.

Background: Understanding of mental illness in sub-Saharan Africa has remained under-researched in spite of the high and increasing neuropsychiatric burden of disease in the region. Aims: This study investigated the causal beliefs that the Igbo people of south-eastern Nigeria hold about schizophrenia, with a view to establishing the extent to which the population makes psychosocial, biological and supernatural attributions. Method: Multi-stage sampling was used to select participants ( N = 200) to which questionnaires were administered. Results: Mean comparison of the three causal models revealed a significant endorsement of supernatural causation. Logistic regressions revealed significant contributions of old age and female gender to supernatural attribution; old age, high education and Catholic religious denomination to psychosocial attributions; and high education to biological attributions. Conclusions: It is hoped that the findings would enlighten, augment literature and enhance mental health care service delivery.

This paper examines the concept of empowerment and how it relates to nursing. It notes that empowerment is a concept used to describe most human activities. The fact that empowerment applies to almost any activity denotes its ambiguity rather than its parsimony. To clarify the concept a definition is offered together with some suggestions for its origin. Some examples of empowerment programmes are given, including the Freirian empowerment philosophy that has had a profound effect in Brazil. The paper then focuses on nursing and discusses whether or not nursing can empower patients. It is argued that nursing cannot empower patients, at least at the present time. Two specific problems are identified as the main reasons why nursing cannot empower patients. It is argued that the first problem or reason is a philosophical one explored using the philosophy of existentialism. The second problem is the nurse–patient interaction and the psychological dynamics involved within such interaction. For example, the continued use of the term ‘patient’ by nurses and other healthcare professionals is seen as militating against empowerment. This is because of the traditional conception of a patient, which invariably assumes not only the patient's sick role but also the passivity associated with being a patient. Furthermore, the hierarchical nature of the profession makes it difficult to empower others. The paper examines some research studies related to patient empowerment. The findings suggest there are problems and some of them stem from the hierarchical and authoritarian nature of nursing. The paper concludes by suggesting ways by which the ideals of patient empowerment may be turned into reality.

The legislative and professional forces that have had an impact on shared learning are reviewed. Table 1 highlights the period and dichotomy between the proposal for creating a shared learning ethos and its implementation. Over a period of almost four decades different pieces of legislation have encouraged the development of cooperative care delivery practice. Thus, politically, the vision and maybe the resources have always been implicitly available. Against these assumptions it is suggested that the reason why shared learning has not yet been fully implemented is the psychological phenomenon of professional ethnocentrism. The conclusion is that overcoming professional ethnocentrism will create an environment conducive to shared learning.

The 1980s and 1990s saw an influx of debates regarding the scientific nature of nursing. The early 1980s onwards brought to the United Kingdom (UK), in particular, the Nursing Process which was thought to be both systematic and scientific. Systematic in the sense that the nursing process had four clear stages namely, (a) assessment, (b) planning, (c) implementation, and (d) evaluation. The nursing process was soon followed by the use of nursing theories and nursing models. These two advances persuaded some nurse authors to champion the view that nursing had truly reached the promised land of scientific nursing (e.g., Kershaw and Salvage, 1986; Leddy and Pepper, 1989; Ashworth and Castledine, 1981). The strengthening of the idea of nursing as a paradigm became the dictum of the 1980s and early 1990s. For me, however, it was the seemingly uncritical acceptance of nursing as a paradigm that prompted my article. I saw twomajor issues. The first issue related to the very meaning of the word ‘‘paradigm’’ because this word seemed either ill-understood or taken for granted. The second issue related to the exploration of the evidence that nursing was actually a paradigm.

Throughout its history, nursing has struggled with definitional issues. Embedded firmly in tradition mothering roles according to McCloskey and Grace (1985), nursing has found it difficult to make transitions into the professional and scientific realms. The professional and scientific status of nursing may not be as gloomy as McCloskey and Grace put it. Leddy and Pepper (1989) for instance claim that nursing has, since the 1960s, dramatically evolved into a scientific discipline. The purpose of this paper is to: 1. redefine science in order to establish the basis of the debate on nursing as a science; 2. outline at least one philosophical position in science and examine how nursing might benefit from it; 3. assess or evaluate, in the light of the above points the possible usefulness of nursing science especially the use of paradigm concepts in nursing; 4. finally question whether nursing wants to work towards paradigm status. In a small way this paper contributes to the debate on the nature of science as applied to nursing. It reflects on the progress being made through nursing models' paradigm concepts. The conclusion suggests that the concept of paradigm as used in nursing is in keeping with Kuhn's and therefore can be adopted as a potentially useful framework.

This article discusses the process by which a questionnaire was developed specifically to measure attitude to shared learning. Over a three-year period the attitude questionnaire was developed and tested using pre-registration students who were engaged in a shared learning programme. These pre-registration students were from three professional groups, namely occupational therapy (OT), diagnostic radiography (DR), and therapeutic radiography (TR). While the study hypothesis was that shared learning would improve attitudes over the three-year period, the focus of this article is to discuss the process by which the research instrument was developed. The rationale for focusing on the process is a simple one. After a diligent literature search it was clear that there were no attitude questionnaires specific to attitude measurement in relation to shared learning. Thus without an already validated attitude to a shared learning questionnaire, it became imperative to create systematically a credible attitude measure of shared learning. The process centred on understanding how monadic scales are constructed and used to measure attitudes and perceptions of participants. Amongst a number of processes to be followed was the need also to check the reliability of the developed questionnaire. This was done using the Cronbach alpha coefficient. A Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.7 was set as a minimum reliability requirement, which was duly satisfied. The outcome of this process was that it very useful to learn how to produce a suitable instrument to measure attitude to shared learning and to add in a small way to the range of attitude questionnaires available.

This article discusses the nature of electronic learning (E-learning) and argues for its centrality to educational diversity and the shift from teaching to learning. It is argued that E-learning is the new wave strategy that sits comfortably with other strategies developed for the 21st century. As such it challenges the traditional 'banking concept' of education, where the teacher is seen as the font of knowledge as long as students acknowledge this and are eager to absorb the teacher's vital knowledge. The article argues that E-learning should replace what Freire (1994) calls the backing concept of education, which is at odds with other 21st century approaches such as lifelong learning, open and flexible learning and the accreditation of prior learning (APL) to name only a few. In suggesting the shift from the traditional approach to E-learning, the article acknowledges issues of quality assurance and the need to maintain not only standards of achievements but also the comparability of those standards. Strategies for developing E-learning material and maintaining standards are discussed. McKey (2000) and Salmon's (2001) model of E-learning development and management are used to show how E-learning works in practise. The article then focuses on the role of E-learning as a catalyst for educational diversity, freedom to learn and equality of opportunity. While E-learning encourages diversity it paradoxically creates programmes that are more specifically tailored to the market needs than traditionally validated programmes. This is seen as very good in terms of addressing specific needs, for instance, specific knowledge and skills for a particular market. The learners or students in that particular market will feel that their specific needs are recognized and addressed, and will thus see the E-learning programme as having relevance for them. The article concludes by asserting that adequate resources, particularly learner support, will distinguish quality or good programmes from bad ones.

Taster courses allow potential students to gain hands on experience in a variety of professional settings. They provide a realistic way of widening entry routes and includes students who are best motivated by vocational courses pathways.

The article has been one of the most challenging in the philosophy and science of nursing. Cash introduces and contextualises his article on the move (particularly in the United Kingdom) of nursing into higher education institutions. He acknowledges that other countries (e.g., Australia, USA, Canada) already had different degrees of academic association with higher education. The issue of the academic foundation of nursing or indeed the epistemological basis of nursing draws Cash to a philosophical analysis that justifies the integration of nursing into higher education. Part of the analysis involves ‘‘The pure and the applied in nursing education’’. From this analysis, Cash tentatively concludes that nursing is in a strong position within higher education because of the applied nature of its knowledge. According to Cash (2000), applied disciplines use knowledge from other paradigms but are not part of them. This implies that nursing may borrow knowledge from other disciplines (e.g., psychology and medicine), and call itself an applied discipline. In his analysis, Cash acknowledges the implication

This paper is based on, and summarises, papers read at the second annual international conference of Nurse Education Tomorrow held at the University of Durham (UK) September 1991. To this end this paper will offer: • Some Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL) definition and process as reflected in the literature available. A distinction will be made between APL and Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning (APEL) although the procedures and processes for assessing them will be shown to be the same. • A brief outline of corporate strategy, as it applies to APL, will be given to form the basis for logical demonstration of how Derbyshire Institute of Health and Community Studies has employed such a corporate strategy. • Insights developed and gained from APL research currently being undertaken through the college of nursing and midwifery will be used to inform the development and nature of corporate strategy. A flowchart of the operationalisation of the corporate strategy is offered as an integrative summary of how all the APL ideas have had a positive cumulative effect. • The paper finishes by highlighting the possible strengths and limitations of APL corporate strategy.

This paper stems out of my current involvement in the Teaching of Social Skills training to health professionals mainly concerned with mental health. It is hoped this paper will stimulate exchange of ideas and experiences amongst health professionals, particularly other teachers and practitioners in mental health. The paper stars with a historical overview (antecedent conditions) highlighting some early views, early successes and failures in the areas of psychological intervention. The advent and purpose of Social Skills training is then presented in the light of these early experiences. The work of a notable British Social Psychologist (Michael Argyle) and his colleagues is selected to achieve two purposes: 1. 1. to describe a range of, personal and interpersonal skills now considered under social skills training, 2. 2. to demonstrate how all these social skills may be taught or learned using key elements of one model. The paper also briefly addresses some ostensive similarities between social skills and motor skills as depicted in the key elements of this one model. It finishes by offering a summary of the model's application plus some hints on training techniques.

This paper is based on the author's experience of using the Q sort technique with BA Social Sciences (BASS) students, and the community psychiatric nursing (CPN, ENB No 811 course). The paper focuses on two main issues: 1. The theoretical assumptions underpinning the Q Sort technique. Carl Rogers' self theory and some of the values of humanistic psychology are summarised. 2. The actual technique procedure and meaning of results are highlighted. As the Q Sort technique is potentially useful in a variety of sittings some of which are listed in this paper, the emphasis has deliberately been placed in understanding the theoretical underpinning and the operationalisation (sensitive interpretation) of the theory to practice.