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A number of Pd based materials have been synthesised and evaluated as catalysts for the conversion of carbon dioxide and hydrogen to methanol, a useful platform chemical and hydrogen storage molecule. Monometallic Pd catalysts shows poor methanol selectivity, but this is improved through the formation of Pd alloys, with both PdZn and PdGa alloys showing greatly enhanced methanol productivity compared with monometallic Pd/Al2O3 and Pd/TiO2 catalysts. Catalyst characterisation shows that the 1:1 β-PdZn alloy is present in all Zn containing post-reaction samples, including PdZn/Ga2O3, while the Pd2Ga alloy formed for the Pd/Ga2O3 sample. The heats of mixing were calculated for a variety of alloy compositions with high heats of mixing calculated for both PdZn and Pd2Ga alloys, with values of ca. -0.6 eV/atom and ca. -0.8 eV/atom, respectively. However, ZnO is more readily reduced than Ga2O3, providing a possible explanation for the preferential formation of the PdZn alloy, rather than PdGa. when in the presence of Ga2O3.

The rise in atmospheric CO2 concentration and the concomitant rise in global surface temperature have prompted massive research effort in designing catalytic routes to utilize CO2 as a feedstock. Prime among these is the hydrogenation of CO2 to make methanol, which is a key commodity chemical intermediate, a hydrogen storage molecule, and a possible future fuel for transport sectors that cannot be electrified. Pd/ZnO has been identified as an effective candidate as a catalyst for this reaction, yet there has been no attempt to gain a fundamental understanding of how this catalyst works and more importantly to establish specific design criteria for CO2 hydrogenation catalysts. Here, we show that Pd/ZnO catalysts have the same metal particle composition, irrespective of the different synthesis procedures and types of ZnO used here. We demonstrate that all of these Pd/ZnO catalysts exhibit the same activity trend. In all cases, the β-PdZn 1:1 alloy is produced and dictates the catalysis. This conclusion is further supported by the relationship between conversion and selectivity and their small variation with ZnO surface area in the range 6–80 m2g–1. Without alloying with Zn, Pd is a reverse water-gas shift catalyst and when supported on alumina and silica is much less active for CO2 conversion to methanol than on ZnO. Our approach is applicable to the discovery and design of improved catalysts for CO2 hydrogenation and will aid future catalyst discovery.

A number of Pd based materials have been synthesised and evaluated as catalysts for the conversion of carbon dioxide and hydrogen to methanol, a useful platform chemical and hydrogen storage molecule. Monometallic Pd catalysts show poor methanol selectivity, but this is improved through the formation of Pd alloys, with both PdZn and PdGa alloys showing greatly enhanced methanol productivity compared with monometallic Pd/Al

The use of heterogeneous catalysts to convert glycerol into lactic acid has been extensively investigated in recent years. Several different strategies have been employed, but importantly, the highest production rates of lactic acid are achieved through aerobic oxidation under alkaline conditions. Despite the progress made in this area, insight into how the catalytic properties influence the selectivity of the competing pathways, oxidative dehydrogenation and dehydration, remains limited. Developing a deeper understanding is therefore critical, if process commercialization is to be realized. Using a model Pt/TiO2 catalyst, we set out to investigate how the supported metal particle size and support phase influenced the selectivity of these two pathways. Both these parameters have a profound effect on the reaction selectivity. Using a range of characterization techniques and through adopting a systematic approach to experimental design, important observations were made. Both pathways are first instigated through the oxidative dehydrogenation of glycerol, leading to the formation of glyceraldehyde or dihydroxyacetone. If these intermediates desorb, they rapidly undergo dehydration through a reaction with the homogeneous base in solution. Based on the experimental evidence we therefore propose that selectivity to lactic acid is influenced by surface residence time.

The production of methanol from glycerol over a basic oxide, such as MgO, using high reaction temperatures (320 °C) is a promising new approach to improving atom efficiency in the production of biofuels. The mechanism of this reaction involves the homolytic cleavage of the C3 feedstock, or its dehydration product hydroxyacetone, to produce a hydroxymethyl radical species which can then abstract an H atom from other species. Obtaining a detailed reaction mechanism for this type of chemistry is difficult due to the large number of products present when the system is operated at high conversions. In this contribution we show how DFT based modelling studies can provide new insights into likely reaction pathways, in particular the source of H atoms for the final step of converting hydroxymethyl radicals to methanol. We show that water is unlikely to be important in this stage of the process, C-H bonds of C2 and C3 species can give an energetically favourable pathway and that the disproportionation of hydroxymethyl radicals to methanol and formaldehyde produces a very favourable route. Experimental analysis of reaction products confirms the presence of formaldehyde. The calculations presented in this work also provides new insight into the role of the catalyst surface in the reaction showing that the base sites of the MgO(100) are able to deprotonate hydroxymethyl radicals but not methanol itself. In carrying out the calculations we also show how periodic DFT and QM/MM approaches can be used together to obtain a rounded picture of molecular adsorption to surfaces and homolytic bond cleavage which are both central to the reactions studied.

The formation of highly active and stable acetylene hydrochlorination catalysts is of great industrial importance. The successful replacement of the highly toxic mercuric chloride catalyst with gold has led to a flurry of research in this area. One key aspect, which led to the commercialization of the gold catalyst is the use of thiosulphate as a stabilizing ligand. This study investigates the use of a range of sulfur containing compounds as promoters for production of highly active Au/C catalysts. Promotion is observed across a range of metal sulfates, non-metal sulfates, and sulfuric acid treatments. This observed enhancement can be optimized by careful consideration of either pre- or post-treatments, concentration of dopants used, and modification of washing steps. Pre-treatment of the carbon support with sulfuric acid (0.76 m) resulted in the most active Au/C in this series with an acetylene conversion of ≈70% at 200 °C.

The reaction of aqueous glycerol over a series of ceria catalysts is investigated, to produce bio-renewable methanol. Product distributions were greatly influenced by the reaction temperature and catalyst contact time. Glycerol conversion of 21% was achieved for a 50 wt.% glycerol solution, over CeO2 (8 m2 g−1) at 320 °C. The carbon mass balance was >99 % and the main product was hydroxyacetone. In contrast, at 440 °C the conversion and carbon mass balance were >99.9 % and 76 % respectively. Acetaldehyde and methanol were the major products at this higher temperature, as both can be formed from hydroxyacetone. The space-time yield (STY) of methanol at 320 °C and 440 °C was 15.2 and 145 gMeOH kgcat−1 h−1 respectively. Fresh CeO2 was prepared and calcined at different temperatures, the textural properties were determined and their influence on the product distribution at iso-conversion and constant bed surface area was investigated. No obvious differences to the glycerol conversion or product selectivity were noted. Hence, we conclude that the surface area of the CeO2 does not appear to influence the reaction selectivity to methanol and other products formed from the conversion of glycerol.

A series of Pt-based catalysts were synthesised and investigated for ambient temperature CO oxidation with the aim to increase catalytic activity and improve moisture resistance through support modification. Initially, bimetallic PtPd catalysts supported on alumina were found to exhibit superior catalytic activity compared with their monometallic counterparts for the reaction. Following an investigation into the effect of Pt/Pd ratio, a composition of 0.1% Pt/0.4% Pd was selected for further studies. Following this, SnO2/Al2O3 supports were synthesised from a variety of tin oxide sources. Catalytic activity was improved using sodium stannate and tin oxalate precursors compared with a traditional tin oxide slurry. Catalytic activity versus tin concentration was found to vary significantly across the three precursors, which was subsequently investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX).

A series of ceria-based solid solution metal oxides were prepared by co-precipitation and evaluated as catalysts for glycerol cleavage, principally to methanol. The catalyst activity and selectivity to methanol were investigated with respect to the reducibility of the catalysts. Oxides comprising Ce-Pr and Ce-Zr were prepared, calcined and compared to CeO 2 , Pr 6 O 11 and ZrO 2 . The oxygen storage capacity of the catalysts was examined with analysis of Raman spectroscopic measurements and a temperature programmed reduction, oxidation and reduction cycle. The incorporation of Pr resulted in significant defects, as evidenced by Raman spectroscopy. The materials were evaluated as catalysts for the glycerol to methanol reaction, and it was found that an increased defect density or reducibility was beneficial. The space–time yield of methanol normalized to surface area over CeO 2 was found to be 0.052 mmol MeOH m −2 h −1 , and over CeZrO 2 and CePrO 2 , this was to 0.029 and 0.076 mmol MeOH m −2 h −1 , respectively. The inclusion of Pr reduced the surface area; however, the carbon mole selectivity to methanol and ethylene glycol remained relatively high, suggesting a shift in the reaction pathway compared to that over ceria. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘Science to enable the circular economy'.