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Nasal mucosal explant (NEs) cultured at an air-liquid interface mimics in vivo conditions more accurately than monolayer cultures of respiratory cell lines or primary cells cultured in flat-bottom microtiter wells. NEs might be relevant for studies of host-pathogen interactions and antiviral immune responses after infection with respiratory viruses, including influenza and corona viruses.Pigs are natural hosts for swine influenza A virus (IAV) but are also susceptible to IAV from humans, emphasizing the relevance of porcine NEs in the study of IAV infection. Therefore, we performed fundamental characterization and study of innate antiviral responses in porcine NEs using microfluidic high-throughput quantitative real–time PCR (qPCR) to generate expression profiles of host genes involved in inflammation, apoptosis, and antiviral immune responses in mock inoculated and IAV infected porcine NEs.Handling and culturing of the explants ex vivo had a significant impact on gene expression compared to freshly harvested tissue. Upregulation (2-43 fold) of genes involved in inflammation, including IL1A and IL6, and apoptosis, including FAS and CASP3, and downregulation of genes involved in viral recognition (MDA5 (IFIH1)), interferon response (IFNA), and response to virus (OAS1, IFIT1, MX1) was observed. However, by comparing time-matched mock and virus infected NEs, transcription of viral pattern recognition receptors (RIG-I (DDX58), MDA5 (IFIH1), TLR3) and type I and III interferons (IFNB1, IL28B (IFNL3)) were upregulated 2-16 fold in IAV infected NEs. Furthermore, several interferon-stimulated genes including MX1, MX2, OAS, OASL, CXCL10, and ISG15 was observed to increase 2-26 fold in response to IAV inoculation. NE expression levels of key genes involved in antiviral responses including IL28B (IFNL3), CXCL10, and OASL was highly comparable to expression levels found in respiratory tissues including nasal mucosa and lung after infection of pigs with the same influenza isolate.

Streptococcus suis is a zoonotic pathogen of swine involved in arthritis, polyserositis, and meningitis. Colonization of piglets by S. suis is very common and occurs early in life. The clinical outcome of infection is influenced by the virulence of the S. suis strains and the immunity of the animals. Here, the role of innate immunity was studied in cesarean-derived colostrum-deprived piglets inoculated intranasally with either virulent S. suis strain 10 (S10) or non-virulent S. suis strain T15. Colonization of the inoculated piglets was confirmed at the end of the study by PCR and immunohistochemistry. Fever (≥40.5 °C) was more prevalent in piglets inoculated with S10 compared to T15 at 4 h after inoculation. During the 3 days of monitoring, no other major clinical signs were detected. Accordingly, only small changes in transcription of genes associated with the antibacterial innate immune response were observed at systemic sites, with S10 inducing an earlier response than T15 in blood. Local inflammatory response to the inoculation, evaluated by transcriptional analysis of selected genes in nasal swabs, was more sustained in piglets inoculated with the virulent S10, as demonstrated by transcription of inflammation-related genes, such as IL1B, IL1A, and IRF7. In contrast, most of the gene expression changes in trachea, lungs, and associated lymph nodes were observed in response to the non-virulent T15 strain. Thus, S. suis colonization in the absence of systemic infection induces an innate immune response in piglets that appears to be related to the virulence potential of the colonizing strain.

Background: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNA molecules which regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally and are involved in a multitude of cellular processes. MiRNAs are known to be very stable compared to messenger RNAs (mRNAs), making them excellent candidates as biomarkers for disease. Recently, studies have suggested that miRNA stability in formalin fixed samples might depend on their nucleotide composition. Objective: To explore the stability of a panel of miRNAs isolated from porcine blood and lung tissue after heat and enzyme treatment. Method: Porcine RNA isolated from lung tissue and blood leukocytes was used for this study. RNA samples were exposed to heat treatment and RNAse A digestion. The levels of selected miRNAs were measured by means of qPCR before and after heat and enzyme treatment. Results: Fourteen miRNAs were successfully analysed, and they were found to degrade differently after exposure to heat or RNAse A. MiRNAs with Conclusion: This is the first study showing that different miRNAs isolated from lung tissue display unequal stability after heat treatment, probably based on their nucleotide composition, highlighting the importance of considering the miRNA sequence when investigating their value as biomarkers.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of short regulatory RNA molecules which are implicated in modulating gene expression. Levels of circulating, cell-associated miRNAs in response to influenza A virus (IAV) infection has received limited attention so far. To further understand the temporal dynamics and biological implications of miRNA regulation in circulating leukocytes, we collected blood samples before and after (1, 3, and 14 days) IAV challenge of pigs. Differential expression of miRNAs and innate immune factor mRNA transcripts was analysed using RT-qPCR. A total of 20 miRNAs were regulated after IAV challenge, with the highest number of regulated miRNAs seen on day 14 after infection at which time the infection was cleared. Targets of the regulated miRNAs included genes involved in apoptosis and cell cycle regulation. Significant regulation of both miRNAs and mRNA transcripts at 14 days after challenge points to a protracted effect of IAV infection, potentially affecting the host’s ability to respond to secondary infections. In conclusion, experimental IAV infection of pigs demonstrated the dynamic nature of miRNA and mRNA regulation in circulating leukocytes during and after infection, and revealed the need for further investigation of the potential immunosuppressing effect of miRNA and innate immune signaling after IAV infection.

In vitro generation of dendritic-like cells through differentiation of peripheral blood monocytes is typically done using two-dimensional polystyrene culture plates. In the process of optimising cell culture techniques, engineers have developed fluidic micro-devises usually manufactured in materials other than polystyrene and applying three-dimensional structures more similar to the in vivo environment. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is an often used polymer for lab-on-a-chip devices but not much is known about the effect of changing the culture surface material from polystyrene to PDMS. In the present study the differentiation of porcine monocytes to monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs) was investigated using CD172apos pig blood monocytes stimulated with GM-CSF and IL-4. Monocytes were cultured on surfaces made of two- and three-dimensional polystyrene as well as two- and three-dimensional PDMS and carbonised three-dimensional PDMS. Cells cultured conventionally (on two-dimensional polystyrene) differentiated into moDCs as expected. Interestingly, gene expression of a wide range of cytokines, chemokines, and pattern recognition receptors was influenced by culture surface material and architecture. Distinct clustering of cells, based on similar expression patterns of 46 genes of interest, was seen for cells isolated from two- and three-dimensional polystyrene as well as two- and three-dimensional PDMS. Changing the material from polystyrene to PDMS resulted in cells with expression patterns usually associated with macrophage expression (upregulation of CD163 and downregulation of CD1a, FLT3, LAMP3 and BATF3). However, this was purely based on gene expression level, and no functional assays were included in this study which would be necessary in order to classify the cells as being macrophages. When changing to three-dimensional culture the cells became increasingly activated in terms of IL6, IL8, IL10 and CCR5 gene expression. Further stimulation with LPS resulted in a slight increase in the expression of maturation markers (SLA-DRB1, CD86 and CD40) as well as cytokines (IL6, IL8, IL10 and IL23A) but the influence of the surfaces was unchanged. These findings highlights future challenges of combining and comparing data generated from microfluidic cell culture-devices made using alternative materials to data generated using conventional polystyrene plates used by most laboratories today.

The innate immune system is paramount in the response to and clearance of influenza A virus (IAV) infection in non-immune individuals. Known factors include type I and III interferons and antiviral pathogen recognition receptors, and the cascades of antiviral and pro- and anti-inflammatory gene expression they induce. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are increasingly recognized to participate in post-transcriptional modulation of these responses, but the temporal dynamics of how these players of the antiviral innate immune response collaborate to combat infection remain poorly characterized. We quantified the expression of miRNAs and protein coding genes in the lungs of pigs 1, 3, and 14 days after challenge with swine IAV (H1N2). Through RT-qPCR we observed a 400-fold relative increase in IFN-λ3 gene expression on day 1 after challenge, and a strong interferon-mediated antiviral response was observed on days 1 and 3 accompanied by up-regulation of genes related to the pro-inflammatory response and apoptosis. Using small RNA sequencing and qPCR validation we found 27 miRNAs that were differentially expressed after challenge, with the highest number of regulated miRNAs observed on day 3. In contrast, the number of protein coding genes found to be regulated due to IAV infection peaked on day 1. Pulmonary miRNAs may thus be aimed at fine-tuning the initial rapid inflammatory response after IAV infection. Specifically, we found five miRNAs (ssc-miR-15a, ssc-miR-18a, ssc-miR-21, ssc-miR-29b, and hsa-miR-590-3p)–four known porcine miRNAs and one novel porcine miRNA candidate–to be potential modulators of viral pathogen recognition and apoptosis. A total of 11 miRNAs remained differentially expressed 14 days after challenge, at which point the infection had cleared. In conclusion, the results suggested a role for miRNAs both during acute infection as well as later, with the potential to influence lung homeostasis and susceptibility to secondary infections in the lungs of pigs after IAV infection.

Influenza A virus infections have great impact on human health and welfare and significant resources are linked to influenza epidemics due to excess hospitalizations and lost productivity. Up to 15% of the human population is affected when Influenza spreads around the world in seasonal epidemics (WHO). Animal models are essential in understanding the mechanisms involved in human infectious disease and for the development of effective prevention and treatment strategies. It is increasingly realized that large animal models like the pig are exceptionally human like and serve as an excellent model for disease and inflammation. Pigs are fully susceptible to human influenza, and have been demonstrated to be involved in influenza evolution and ecology. Pigs share many similarities with humans regarding lung physiology and innate immune cell infiltration of the respiratory system and thus seem to be an obvious large animal model for respiratory infections. This study aimed at providing a better understanding of the involvement of circulating non-coding RNA and innate immune factors in porcine blood leukocytes during influenza virus infection. By employing the pig as a model we were able to perform highly controlled experimental infections and to study changes of symptoms, viral titer, and expression of microRNAs/mRNAs as the influenza infection progresses in time, generating information that would be difficult to obtain from human patients. The Gram-negative bacterium Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae causes pneumonia in pigs, a disease which is associated with high morbidity and mortality, as well as impaired animal welfare. The rapidly evolving pneumonia is characterized by large areas of lung necrosis resulting from the combined effect of tissue damage caused by the bacteria, and a strong proinflammatory immune response. To obtain in-depth understanding of this infection, concurrent gene expression of host and pathogen in lung samples collected from pigs experimentally infected with A. pleuropneumoniae was studied. We applied high-throughput RT-qPCR for the simultaneous analysis of host and pathogen gene expression. This parallel analysis was done in lung tissue samples as well as in the immediate surroundings of infection loci after laser capture microdissection. Regulation of gene expression of several immune factors was observed in agreement with protein levels of these factors in lung tissue, infection status and histopathological findings.

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Map) causes paratuberculosis, a chronic enteritis of ruminants. The aim of the study was to use high-throughput reverse transcriptase (RT) qPCR to describe intestinal gene expression patterns in response to different levels of Map infection with a large panel of immunologically relevant genes.For the study we selected samples of 6 calves that were all experimentally infected with Map at two weeks of age and based on serology, histology and Map tissue load were classified as protected (n=2) or unprotected (n=2) after vaccination, or un-vaccinated infected controls (n=2). From each calf, 7 intestinal tissue samples and 3 lymph node samples, collected at 10 months of age, were used for cDNA synthesis. Expression of a total of 37 selected genes including inflammatory, Th1 and Th17 related genes were explored. The results showed that Map infection, as expected, leads to increased expression of local IFN-γ. Expression of IL-10 also increased as a result of Map infection, and this increase was more correlated to the amount of Map than IFN-γ, indicating a shift towards a regulatory environment as infection progress. Th17-mediated immune responses were suppressed at this stage. Gene expression of all other genes could not be interpreted in relation to infection status. High throughput RT qPCR can be used for exploring gene expression patterns in response to Map infection but larger study groups are needed to fully understand which are key mechanisms and pathways responsible for protection or disease.

Large animal models are essential in understanding the mechanisms involved in human infectious disease. To study the expression of host and bacterial genes involved in defense and survival mechanisms, we analyzed lung tissue from pigs experimentally infected with the Gram-negative bacterium A. pleuropneumoniae. All steps including RNA extraction and high-throughput real-time qPCR were carried out simultaneously for the two organisms. By applying this dual-organism approach, we obtained unique insights into the host-pathogen interaction at the site of infection. Differential expression of host genes involved in innate immune responses towards Gram-negative infections, including pattern recognition receptors and cytokines concurrent with expression of bacterial genes involved in lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis and adhesion was demonstrated. We also studied the gene expression in blood leukocytes after experimental H1N2 virus infection of pigs, and found the regulation of several swine encoded miRNAs and cytokines to mimic key findings from influenza studies in human patients. By employing the pig as a model we were able to perform highly controlled experimental infections and to study changes of symptoms, viral titer, and expression of microRNAs/mRNAs as the influenza infection progressed in time, generating information that would be difficult to obtain from human patients.

IntroductionSubstantial morbidity and mortality is caused by secondary bacterial infections occurring in individuals after influenza A virus (IAV) infection. Results from studies in mice suggest that this may in part be due to a lack of responsiveness to Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands in the post-IAV infected individual. Using the pig as an animal model, we have identified microRNAs (miRNAs) that are differentially expressed in lung tissue two weeks after challenge compared to uninfected controls, i.e. well after the infection has cleared. The role for differential expression of miRNA at this late time point remains unclear. We therefore seek to examine the potential involvement of miRNAs in the translational regulation of TLRs and associated proteins, thus contributing to the lowered responsiveness to bacterial TLR ligands at this late time point, making the individual vulnerable to secondary infections.Methods and outcomePigs were experimentally challenged with a Danish reassortant IAV strain (A/sw/Denmark/12687/03(H1N2)). Lung tissue was harvested 14 days after challenge, as well as from uninfected control animals. Using RNAseq and high-throughput RT-qPCR, we quantified the expression of relevant miRNAs (e.g. miR-335 and miR-146a-5p) and mRNA levels of relevant miRNA targets. Transcriptional analysis at the site of infection reveals a set of miRNAs to be regulated one week after the pigs had cleared the IAV infection (i.e. two weeks after challenge). This set included miRNAs experimentally validated or in silico predicted to bind to and regulate transcripts of TLRs and relevant co-factors and transcription factors (online tools). The antiviral immune response elicited by IAV infection thus includes late miRNA regulation, which in turn may be at the expense of host responsiveness to bacterial TLR ligands.

Background Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae causes pleuropneumonia in pigs, a disease which is associated with high morbidity and mortality, as well as impaired animal welfare. To obtain in-depth understanding of this infection, the interplay between virulence factors of the pathogen and defense mechanisms of the porcine host needs to be elucidated. However, research has traditionally focused on either bacteriology or immunology; an unbiased picture of the transcriptional responses can be obtained by investigating both organisms in the same biological sample. Results Host and pathogen responses in pigs experimentally infected with A. pleuropneumoniae were analyzed by high-throughput RT-qPCR. This approach allowed concurrent analysis of selected genes encoding proteins known or hypothesized to be important in the acute phase of this infection. The expression of 17 bacterial and 31 porcine genes was quantified in lung samples obtained within the first 48 hours of infection. This provided novel insight into the early time course of bacterial genes involved in synthesis of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (lipopolysaccharide, peptidoglycan, lipoprotein) and genes involved in pattern recognition (TLR4, CD14, MD2, LBP, MYD88) in response to A. pleuropneumoniae. Significant up-regulation of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL1B, IL6, and IL8 was observed, correlating with protein levels, infection status and histopathological findings. Host genes encoding proteins involved in iron metabolism, as well as bacterial genes encoding exotoxins, proteins involved in adhesion, and iron acquisition were found to be differentially expressed according to disease progression. By applying laser capture microdissection, porcine expression of selected genes could be confirmed in the immediate surroundings of the invading pathogen. Conclusions Microbial pathogenesis is the product of interactions between host and pathogen. Our results demonstrate the applicability of high-throughput RT-qPCR for the elucidation of dual-organism gene expression analysis during infection. We showed differential expression of 12 bacterial and 24 porcine genes during infection and significant correlation of porcine and bacterial gene expression. This is the first study investigating the concurrent transcriptional response of both bacteria and host at the site of infection during porcine respiratory infection. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1557-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

It is increasingly realized that large animal models like the pig are exceptionally human like and serve as an excellent model for disease and inflammation. Pigs are fully susceptible to human influenza, share many similarities with humans regarding lung physiology and innate immune cell infiltration of the respiratory system.This study aimed at providing a better understanding of the involvement of innate immune factors and non-coding RNA in blood leukocytes during influenza A virus infection. By using the pig as a model we were able to perform highly controlled experimental infections and study early clinical signs of disease, viral titer, and transcriptional response of coding and non-coding RNA. This was completed during the first two weeks after experimental viral infection, generating information that would be difficult to obtain from human patients. Expression of a wide range of immune factors including several genes known to be centrally involved in the viral defence was quantified by high throughput qPCR (BioMark, Fluidigm). Likewise, miRNAs were quantified using the BioMark (Fluidigm) as well as by MiRCURY LNATM (Exiqon). During the first 24 hours of infection we found the expression of several antiviral genes, including interferon and interferon-related genes, to mimic key findings from human studies. Finally, several circulating miRNAs isolated from blood leukocytes was found to hold great potential as biomarkers for progression of viral lung infection. These results further consolidate the pig as a valuable model for influenza A virus infection.