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Students attending college rely on a variety of social and financial resources to cover the personal and academic costs of higher education. The most common tool for students is financial aid, which may include loans, needs-based grants, and work–study. Federal financial aid is designed to increase accessibility for individuals to pursue a college degree and is generally determined by their family’s assets or socioeconomic status. Research has suggested positive and negative relationships between students’ socioeconomic status and their academic outcomes. As this relationship has yet to be explored in music therapy, the primary purpose of this study was to explore the current financial needs and economic diversity of American undergraduate music therapy students. A survey was sent in April of 2020 for dissemination to undergraduate music therapy majors. Students from across the United States (n = 346) completed the questionnaire. Key findings included (a) most music therapy students (61.7%) took out student loans during the 2019–2020 academic year and expect substantial levels of debt upon graduation (>$10,000); (b) about one-third (34.4%) of respondents received the Pell Grant, a needs-based grant, in the past year; (c) a considerable majority (77.5%) were employed during school; and (d) 97% of students received additional financial assistance from their families. This study also compared the needs between BIPOC (Black, indigenous, people of color) and white students. Implications of findings as they relate to music therapy education and further research regarding the financial need and socioeconomic status are also discussed.

Experiencing a stroke can lead to difficulties with emotion regulation and mood disorders like depression. It is well documented that poststroke depression (PSD) affects a third of all stroke survivors. Higher levels of depression and depressive symptoms are associated with less efficient use of rehabilitation services, poor functional outcomes, negative impacts on social participation, and increased mortality. Mood in the acute phases of stroke recovery may be a key factor influencing the depression trajectory with early depression predicting poor longitudinal outcomes. The purpose of the study was to examine the effect of one active music therapy (AMT) treatment on mood following a first-time ischemic stroke during acute hospitalization. Forty-four adults received AMT defined as music-making interventions that elicit and encourage active participation. The Faces Scale was used to assess mood immediately prior to and following the treatment. A significant change in mood was found following one treatment. Comment analysis indicated that participants viewed music therapy as a positive experience. Findings here support the use of brief AMT to provide early psychological support to stroke survivors. Continued investigation into the role of music therapy in early stroke recovery is recommended.

Introduction: Burnout is a psychological syndrome that develops in response to chronic interpersonal job stressors and music therapists, like other healthcare providers, are at risk for bur...

Music teachers play an important role in exposing students to career options in the field of music. As a result, there is a need to explore music education students’ interest in and knowledge of music therapy. The purpose of this study was to investigate music education students’ exposure to, knowledge of, and willingness to promote music therapy as a career option for prospective collegiate students. A survey was given to 254 music education majors from four research institutions, two with and two without music therapy degree programs. Participants answered demographic, yes/no, Likert-type scale, and open-ended questions about their exposure to, knowledge of, and willingness to promote careers in music therapy. Results indicate that exposure to music therapy occurred in both pre-collegiate and college settings, and that music teachers appear to be influential in exposing students to music therapy. Students often sought out information on music therapy independently, which played an important role in how individuals learned about music therapy, though it has the potential of providing misinformation. Significant differences were found in participants’ knowledge and willingness to promote music therapy as a career option based on the presence of music therapy degree programs. Exposure seemed to be a key factor in music therapy knowledge and promotion; thus, music therapists need to ensure accurate dissemination of music therapy-related information in both pre-collegiate and college settings. Increasing the visibility of the field has the potential to expand interest and potentially attract young musicians well suited for a career in music therapy.

While literature exists supporting the use of music for health promotion, scholars have also noted the potential for music-induced harm and other maladaptive effects of music. Harm is a multifaceted construct that can include affective, behavioral, cognitive, identity, interpersonal, physical, and spiritual aspects. As music also represents a multifaceted experience, the relationship between music and harm is complex and can include numerous contextual-, deliverer-, music-, and recipient-based factors. Music-induced harm (MIH) also needs to be clearly defined to understand and protect against it. Therefore, the purpose of this article was to explore the numerous factors influencing how music can result in harm and develop a theoretical model that could be used to inform safe music practices. Drawing from existing models of emotional responses to music, music intervention reporting guidelines, therapeutic functions of music, and holistic wellness, we explored how the interplay between the deliverer, music, and recipient can result in various types of MIH in diverse contexts. We then developed the MIH model to integrate these factors and connect the model with the existing literature. The MIH model highlights the relevance of academic and clinical training, credentialing, occupational regulation, continuing education, and professional organizations that provide accredited curricular oversight to protect people from MIH. Implications for clinical application, limitations, and suggestions for future research are provided.

Parents of infants hospitalized in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) often face a variety of emotional and practical challenges that can lead to post-traumatic stress symptoms, acute stress disorder, or posttraumatic stress disorder. Music therapy has consistently shown benefits for infants, parents, and caregivers, but limited information exists on how music therapists specifically address parents’ needs. The purpose of this study was to explore American music therapists’ experiences with parents in the NICU. Fifty-four board certified music therapists who had or were practicing music therapy in the NICU completed an online survey. Participants’ responses indicated that they regularly address parent needs and most frequently work with mother and infant concurrently. Most worked limited hours with small numbers of patients. Those with five or more years of experience were significantly more likely to receive referrals for parent needs. The most commonly addressed parent need was anxiety, and music therapy strategies and interventions included infant-directed procedures, counseling skills, psychoeducation, and music-assisted relaxation. Most felt adequately trained to work in the NICU, but some wanted additional training related to counseling skills, parent- specific intervention training, and cultural sensitivity. More research is needed to explore family-centered music therapy in the NICU.

Background Young children who experience high levels of preoperative anxiety often exhibit distress behaviors, experience more surgical complications, and are at a higher risk for developing a variety of negative postoperative consequences. A significant factor in pediatric preoperative anxiety is the level of anxiety present in their caregivers. Active and passive music therapy interventions addressing anxiety prior to invasive procedures have been met with success. Objective The purpose of this study was to investigate the comparative effectiveness of two distraction-based music therapy interventions on reducing preoperative anxiety in young pediatric surgical patients and their caregivers. Methods A total of 40 pediatric patient and caregiver dyads undergoing ambulatory surgery were included in this study. Pediatric preoperative anxiety was measured pre- and post-intervention using the modified Yale Pediatric Anxiety Scale, while caregiver anxiety was measured through self-report using the short-form Strait-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Y6. Participants were randomized to either an active or passive intervention group for a preoperative music therapy session. Results Results indicated a significant reduction in preoperative anxiety for both patients and their caregivers regardless of intervention type. Neither active nor passive music therapy interventions were significantly more effective than the other. Conclusions For future studies, the researchers recommend an increased sample size, controlling for various factors such as sedative premedication use, and testing interventions with patients in various stages of development.

Music therapy treatment is increasingly being used to promote health, enhance quality of life, and improve functioning in military personnel, but evidence on the use of music interventions with military service members is still emerging. The purpose of this scoping review was to synthesize the available literature regarding music therapy treatment with military personnel by identifying the types of information available, key characteristics, and gaps in the knowledge base. The review was completed using the methodological framework proposed by Arksey and O’Malley. A total of 27 publications met the criteria for review. The results included anecdotal reports, white papers/ briefs, case studies, historical reviews, clinical program descriptions, and research studies. Both active duty and veteran service members were represented in the literature, and post-traumatic stress disorder and traumatic brain injury were the most commonly listed conditions among those served. Music therapy services were offered in both group and individual formats, and drumming was the most common music intervention cited. Most publications accurately represented music therapy, and the historical reviews highlighted the connection between the development of the field of music therapy and the use of music with military personnel. Several gaps were identified, including a lack of specificity in reporting, low levels of evidence, and limited inclusion of women service members.

OBJECTIVE: College musicians exhibit greater declines in hearing than the general population and are at particular risk because they rehearse and perform daily in loud environments. Also, they engage in use of personal listening devices which increases the amount of “exposure” time. Despite increased risk, many do not use hearing protection devices (HPD). The purpose of this study was to (1) to identify the present level of education about hearing health, (2) identify the perceived advantages and disadvantages of using HPD, and (3) evaluate results among different musical instrument groups. METHODS: A mixed-methods group design was used including both quantitative and qualitative instruments. SPSS was used to generate descriptive statistics, and non-parametric statistical analysis was performed on quantitative data. NVivo software was used to evaluate qualitative responses. RESULTS: Of the 90 college instrumental music students who participated, 12% reported a history of hearing loss, and over one-third reported tinnitus. Seventy-seven percent of participants had never received any training about hearing health and only a small percentage of students used HPD. The most cited reason for lack of protection use was its negative impact on sound quality. However, group differences were noted between brass, woodwind, and percussion musicians in terms of HPD uptake. CONCLUSION: Improving the type of information disseminated to college musicians may reduce the risk of ear-related deficits. Noise dosage information, HPD information, and prevention education grounded in theories like the Health Belief Model may increase awareness and promote greater use of HPDs in this population.

An Introduction to Music Therapy Research, edited by Barbara Wheeler and Kathleen Murphy, is a 20-chapter that provides overview of how research has been conceived and implemented in music therapy. The text is geared to those beginning their studies in music therapy and as such address all stages of research, beginning with foundational aspects like selection of a topic before moving to a more detailed presentation of specific research components like data analysis and interpretation of results. Objectivist (qualitative) and interpretivist (quantitative research) theoretical perspectives, methodologies, and methods are included in the book, as well as information on mixed methods research and important historical, ethical, and multicultural considerations.

Music therapy is a flexible treatment modality, able to promote wellness, facilitate symptom management, and improve the quality of life of those with mental illnesses. Qualified, credentialed music therapists use active and passive music therapy interventions to target specific objectives like improving mood, increasing compliance and motivation, and enhancing emotional expression. Data suggest that music therapy intervention results in clinical improvement in individuals with a range of mental health needs, and these benefits are seen among individuals with varying diagnoses, ages, and ethnicities. The data also suggest that music therapy is cost effective, has little adverse effects, and is well received by those with mental illnesses. This chapter provides an overview of music therapy in mental health treatment, including commonly found diagnoses among individuals served, evidence-based practices, and outcomes found in the literature. Descriptions of music therapy interventions are provided, as are case examples to illustrate music therapy in mental health treatment. Finally, service provision is discussed, as is current music therapy research and areas for future investigation.

Background: Individuals undergoing medical procedur es frequently experience pain and anxiety. Music-based interventions have the potential to help alleviate these symptoms. Objective: This r eview investigated the effects of music-based interventions (music therapy and music medicine) on pain and anxiety in children and adults undergoing medical procedures. Methods: This systematic r eview examined randomized controlled trial music intervention studies to manage patient-reported pain and/or anxiety during medical procedures. All studies were published in English and peer-reviewed journals. Quality and risk of bias were assessed using criteria from the Checklist to Evaluate a Report of a Nonpharmacological Trial (CLEAR-NPT). Results: Fifty studies met inclusion criteria, the majority of which (84%) had a high risk of bias. It was not possible to perfor m a meta-analysis because studies varied greatly in terms of medical procedure and intervention type. Results varied across studies, with approximately half (48%) indicating less anxiety for music intervention participants; fewer studies (36%) reported less pain for music intervention participants. Conclusions: Ther e is a need to clearly define and differentiate between music therapy and music medicine interventions in procedural support research. Further research is necessary to determine which patients would benefit most from music interventions during medical procedures, and which interventions are most beneficial. To improve research quality and reduce risk of bias, when designing studies investigators need to carefully consider factors related to design, including randomization, treatment allocation concealment, blinding outcome assessors, and intention-to-treat analysis. In addition, more detailed intervention reporting is needed when publishing results.

Les chercheurs en musicotherapie ont suggere que le traitement verbal est largement integre dans la pratique de la musicotherapie, bien que la mise en œuvre specifique varie en fonction de l'approche therapeutique et du niveau de fonctionnement des clients. Les resultats des etudes de musicotherapie ont suggere que les clients trouvent le traitement verbal a la fois important et utile, mais le developpement des techniques de traitement verbal peut etre difficile pour les musicotherapeutes et les etudiants en musicotherapie. Etant donne la complexite des competences requises, l'inclusion d'un modele ou d'un cadre peut aider a concentrer et a organiser le developpement des competences. Un modele qui peut avoir une grande utilite parmi la pratique de la musicotherapie est le modele micro-competences (microconseils). Le miconseils repose sur des competences ethiques et culturelles, s'adresse aux competences de maniere hierarchique et peut etre combine avec un certain nombre d'approches theoriques. La recherche montre que ce modele a ete traduit avec succes dans 21 langues, utilise dans une gamme de professions d'aide, et a enseigne a la fois en formats traditionnelle et auto-instruction. Peut-etre le plus important, le modele se concentre initialement sur les competences necessaires a tous les musicotherapeutes, independamment de l'orientation theorique, puis progresse vers les competences necessaires pour faciliter efficacement les interventions de musicotherapie communes, comme la discussion chanson. La combinaison de ce modele avec d'autres elements de l'education musicotherapie peut mieux promouvoir le developpement des competences et guider les musicotherapeutes dans l'utilisation des competences.

The purpose of the study was to investigate music education and music therapy majors’ use of Twitter and their perceptions and knowledge related to policies and practices. Music majors ( N = 238) from five universities in the Southeastern and Midwestern United States participated in a 16-question researcher-designed survey. Results indicated that Twitter was most often used for social purposes. Academic use of Twitter was reported less frequently. Music education majors were likely to have knowledge of Twitter-based incidences of unprofessional content. Similar Twitter usage was reported in terms of gender. Student/faculty classroom interactions involving Twitter were minimal. Implications and avenues for possible future research are discussed.

There is limited information on students with disabilities in the string classroom. The aim of this integrative review was to synthesize the existing knowledge and trends regarding educational prac...

The purpose of this study was to examine preservice music educators’ attitudes toward popular music in the music classroom. On a survey instrument designed by the investigators, participants ( N = 82) rated (a) the effectiveness of popular music in addressing the National Standards for Music Education, (b) the appropriateness of popular music in various age-groups and music classroom settings, (c) their overall attitudes toward the use of popular music in the classroom, and (d) their perceived preparation to teach popular music based on their preservice coursework. Results suggest that the participants find popular music to be more appropriate for older students than for younger students and appropriate only in certain classroom settings. Attitudes toward popular music varied within the sample, and participants responded that their preservice training to teach popular music was minimal.

Anxiety and pain are common responses to surgery, and both can negatively affect patient outcomes. Music interventions have been suggested as a nonpharmacological intervention to alleviate pain and anxiety during surgical treatment. Although the data are somewhat mixed, the research suggests that music-based interventions are effective in reducing anxiety, pain perception, and sedative intake. The majority of studies have focused on interventions during the postoperative period and address pain reduction, with preoperative use of music targeting anxiety reduction the second most commonly cited objective. Most of the studies found in the literature involve passive music listening via headphones. The data suggest that researcher-selected music is most effective in reducing anxiety, primarily because it incorporates evidence-based parameters such as consistent tempo and dynamics, stable rhythms, and smooth melodic lines. Finally, the literature suggests that music therapists can serve as experts to help medical personnel identify effective implementation strategies.

Research suggests that today's students use technology in a variety of ways including social networking, obtaining data for class assignments, conducting research, and seeking information about colleges and universities (Pempek, Yervdokly, & Calvert, 2009; Perkins, 2010; Salas & Alexander, 2008; Van Horn, 2003). In fact, a large majority of students indicate they prefer the internet over traditional academic sources for assignments and research (Mokharti, Reichard, & Gardner, 2009; Van Horn, 2003). An earlier Pew Internet and American Life survey (Minkel, 2002) found that 42% of respondents used the Internet significantly when searching for an educational institution. Research also suggests that colleges and universities are investing billions of dollars each year on technology designed to facilitate student learning, enhance access to educational opportunities, and support interaction and collaboration (Selwyn, 2007).Even though "technology is pervasive in education, it has not been heavily infused in the activities of teaching and learning" (Keengwe, Kidd, & Kyei-Blankson, 2009, p. 23). However, the use of technology, particularly online multimedia resources such as video/audio clips, can markedly augment learning and promote a number of pedagogical objectives (Miller, 2009; Smith, 201 1). In an extensive article, Miller (2009) attempted to provide guidance for educators on the use of online multimedia. The author provided an overview of pedagogical rationales, types of media, location strategies, content retrieval and delivery, copyright issues, typical problems, specific sites, and selected samples for use of online video and audio content in the social sciences. In particular, Miller suggested the use of search engines, usergenerated sharing sites like YouTube and quality documentary films found on reliable sites like National Geographic and PBS. However, the author cautioned that finding quality video content can take considerable initiative and effort.In the field of music therapy, information about online multimedia options is still very limited. To date, there is no comprehensive source that provides up-to-date guidance about available online music therapy-related content. Several older sources examined the use of the internet to search for information on music therapy (Bonde, 1999; Johnson, Geringer, & Stewart, 2003). However, much of the information provided by these sources does not promote use of current technologies for education and outreach. More recently, Gooding and Gregory (2011) examined the use of YouTube as a resource for music therapy clinical session videos. While this analysis was more current, it did not address the use of other types of online multimedia outside of clinical videos.In order to broaden the available knowledge about online multimedia related to music therapy, the current project investigated the use of music therapy documentaries in two primary areas - videos found on the user-generated site, YouTube, and videos found on college and university music therapy program websites. Data was collected from each area and then cross-referenced to determine similarities and trends related to professional advocacy, current viewers' discrimination of content, and the future development of online resources.MethodYouTube AnalysisThe first 60 titles of a search using the term "music therapy" conducted on July 23, 201 0, were selected for analysis. Of the 60 videos, 35 were verified to be music therapy documentary clips. However, it was determined that there were only 27 distinct documentaries among the 35 clips because the remaining 8 clips were actually additional segments of previously counted documentaries. In order to prevent skewed data, only the 27 distinct documentaries were selected for analysis.The sample of 27 videos was divided between the authors and each video was reviewed by one author using a researcher-created rubric almost identical to the one developed for the earlier investigation of YouTube music therapy session videos (Gooding & Gregory, 2011). …

Development involves progressive changes in knowledge and abilities that occur across the life span. Current research on musical abilities suggests that the development of skills necessary for musicality begins in utero and continues through adulthood. Many of these skills, such as the ability to carry a tune, move in time to music, and respond emotionally to music, progress as part of normal cognitive maturation and development. Others, such as explicit musical knowledge and musical performance, require in-depth learning and practice for future musical development to occur. This article provides a compilation of key musical developmental milestones and learning characteristics from prebirth through adolescence gathered from the research literature. A brief summary of relevant information is provided, as well as charts outlining specific points from the literature.

The purpose of this study was to conduct a descriptive analysis of music therapy-related videos on YouTube. Preliminary searches using the keywords music therapy, music therapy session, and "music therapy session" resulted in listings of 5000, 767, and 59 videos respectively. The narrowed down listing of 59 videos was divided between two investigators and reviewed in order to determine their relationship to actual music therapy practice. A total of 32 videos were determined to be depictions of music therapy sessions. These videos were analyzed using a 16-item investigator-created rubric that examined both video specific information and therapy specific information. Results of the analysis indicated that audio and visual quality was adequate, while narrative descriptions and identification information were ineffective in the majority of the videos. The top 5 videos (based on the highest number of viewings in the sample) were selected for further analysis in order to investigate demonstration of the Professional Level of Practice Competencies set forth in the American Music Therapy Association (AMTA) Professional Competencies (AMTA, 2008). Four of the five videos met basic competency criteria, with the quality of the fifth video precluding evaluation of content. Of particular interest is the fact that none of the videos included credentialing information. Results of this study suggest the need to consider ways to ensure accurate dissemination of music therapy-related information in the YouTube environment, ethical standards when posting music therapy session videos, and the possibility of creating AMTA standards for posting music therapy related video.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of video exposure on music therapy students' perceptions of clinical applications of popular music in the field of music therapy. Fifty-one participants were randomly divided into two groups and exposed to a popular song in either audio-only or music video format. Participants were asked to indicate clinical applications; specifically, participants chose: (a) possible population(s), (b) most appropriate population(s), (c) possible age range(s), (d) most appropriate age ranges, (e) possible goal area(s) and (f) most appropriate goal area. Data for each of these categories were compiled and analyzed, with no significant differences found in the choices made by the audio-only and video groups. Three items, (a) selection of the bereavement population, (b) selection of bereavement as the most appropriate population and (c) selection of the age ranges of pre teen/mature adult, were additionally selected for further analysis due to their relationship to the video content. Analysis results revealed a significant difference between the video and audio-only groups for the selection of these specific items, with the video group's selections more closely aligned to the video content. Results of this pilot study suggest that music video exposure to popular music can impact how students choose to implement popular songs in the field of music therapy.

Medical music therapy, which has developed rapidly in the last 15 years, has been effectively used with preterm infants in neonatal intensive care units. The purpose of this article is to provide an introduction to current music therapy protocols for premature infants, as well as highlight research supporting the use of these procedures to address a variety of medical and developmental objectives. Protocols covered include (a) music combined with kangaroo care, (b) multimodal stimulation, (c) developmentally appropriate music listening and (d) pacifier activated lullabies (PAL). Research suggests that these procedures have been effective in addressing a wide range of medical and developmental needs. Positive outcomes include: (a) reduced length of stay, (b) stabilized oxygen saturation levels, (c) increased stimulation tolerance, (d) reduced stress-related behaviors, (e) enhanced parent–infant bonding and (f) improved parent–child interactions.

The American Music Therapy Association (AMTA) requires that students observe and participate in a variety of clinical situations prior to internship placement (Wheeler, 2000). Furthermore, AMTA recommends that clinical observations should be provided during the early stages of music therapy training in order to help "clarify whether the student is interested in and suitable for a career in music therapy" (Wheeler, 2000, p. 287). Therefore the role of observation, when combined with other early educational experiences, is to provide (a) basic understanding of the individuals served by music therapists, (b) basic understanding of the role of a music therapist, (c) examples of music therapy in action and provide personal, and (d) professional preparation for music therapy internship placement. The purpose of this study is to explore the use of video-based clinical observations as a component in the training of pre-intern music therapy students.Use of Video for Clinical ObservationBeginning in the 1940's, clinical observation was incorporated into the music therapy training process. For example, students at Westminster College training in "hospital music" participated in weekly lecture and practica that incorporated both interaction and patient observation (de l'Etoile, 2000). Today, clinical observation continues to be part of the practicum experience. In fact, when students were asked about practica experiences, they specifically requested increased observation experiences (McClain, 1993). Furthermore, results of a survey investigating pre-intern educational practices and perceptions of those practices indicated that 37.5% of respondents believed that they did not spend enough time observing during their pre-intern clinical training (Belgrave, Gooding, & Mori-lnoue, 2008).Due to a lack of resources, it can often be difficult for university programs to provide additional observation time. In 2004, Jones (2004) conducted a survey on the status of collegiate programs; of the 52 institutions that responded, 13 (25%) indicated that they had inadequate practica resources. This suggests that it may be necessary for educators to search for alternatives to traditional practica-related observations. One possibility is the use of videotaped clinical observations. In situations where direct observation is not possible, video observations can serve as a valuable alternative, providing opportunities for discussion as well as exposure to a variety of clinical situations and populations (Davis et al., 1 989; Madsen & Standley, 1991). Research however, suggests that use of video observations in the field of music therapy is limited. Wheeler (2000) conducted a survey of university music therapy education programs in which she asked about the use of video in the classroom. Of the 40 institutions that responded, only two indicated that they utilized video observations in the classroom setting.Use of Video for Additional Instructional PurposesThough the use of video was limited in terms of clinical observations, Wheeler's (2000) survey did reveal other uses of video in the music therapy training process. Clinical training uses included (a) reviewing video with instructors (four schools), (b) reviewing video with peer mentors (two schools), (c) using video to provide self-feedback (three schools), and (d) using video as an alternative to on-site supervision (three schools). In addition to clinical training, respondents indicated other uses of video, most of which were academic in nature. Uses included but were not limited to: (a) video as a teaching tool, (b) video to assess student attitudes, and (c) video as a self-assessment tool. An example of the academic use of video can be found in a study conducted by Ten Eyck (1985). This study involved the use of video as a teaching tool in the classroom. Students enrolled in an orientation to music therapy/music education course were asked to view videotaped sessions of former students conducting field teaching assignments prior to conducting their own field teaching experiences. …

Strong social skills are vital for successful functioning in life. Social skills can affect academic success, peer relationships, family relationships, employment, and extracurricular and leisure activities. Children and adolescents who display academic, social, and behavioral deficits are at risk for both short-term and long-term negative social and academic outcomes (Lane, Givner, & Pierson, 2004). In fact, longitudinal studies have shown a connection between behavioral and social difficulties and substandard academic achievement as children mature (Bracken & Fischel, 2007; Lane et al., 2004). Furthermore, research suggests that students with deficits in social and behavioral skills frequently show higher rates of school dropout, impaired social relationships, unemployment or underemployment, substance abuse, unstable and unfulfilling personal lives, and a lack of postsecondary education and training (Lane et al., 2004). In addition, students with poor social skills are more likely to be rejected by their peers and more likely to be the victims of bullying (Milsom & Glanville, 2009). Because of disability-specific deficits that lead to fewer interactions with peers and/or difficulty establishing meaningful relationships, children with disabilities are at a much greater risk for demonstrating poor social skills (Bellini, 2004; Boo & Prins, 2006; Milsom & Glanville, 2009). According to recent figures from the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2008), 13.5% of the total public school enrollment demonstrated some type of disability that qualified them for services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) during the 2006–2007 academic year. Given the large number of students served under IDEA, the likelihood that music educators will teach students with some type of disability is high. Moreover, the likelihood that those students with disabilities will demonstrate poor social skills is also high. Children need opportunities to learn social skills, practice those skills, and receive corrective feedback about their performance of those skills. Because music is an inherently social activity, the music classroom is an ideal place to help students develop or improve vital social skills. Specific Social Skill Objectives That Can Be Incorporated Into the Music Classroom

Literature supports the use of both poetry therapy and music therapy with adolescents. Song writing in particular has been recognized for its wide appeal among the adolescent population. In fact, many of the techniques incorporated into the song writing process are common to both poetry therapy and music therapy. This paper will examine some of those common techniques and provide an overview of related literature. A case study will be provided to illustrate some of the techniques mentioned within the review of literature.

This article summarizes the research on music therapy and music medicine for children and adolescents with diagnoses commonly treated by psychiatrists. Music therapy and music medicine are defined, effects of music on the brain are described, and music therapy research in psychiatric treatment is discussed. Music therapy research with specific child/adolescent populations is summarized, including disorders usually diagnosed in childhood, substance abuse, mood/anxiety disorders, and eating disorders. Clinical implications are listed, including suggestions for health care professionals seeking to use music medicine techniques. Strengths and weaknesses of music therapy treatment are discussed, as well as areas for future research.

This study investigated the effects of early- to midlife musical training on cognition in older adults. A musical training survey examined self-reported musical experience and objective knowledge in 237 cognitively intact participants. Responses were classified into low-, medium-, and high-knowledge groups. Linear mixed models compared the groups’ longitudinal performance on the Animal Naming Test (ANT; semantic verbal fluency) and Logical Memory Story A Immediate Recall (LMI; episodic memory) controlling for baseline age, time since baseline, education, sex, and full-scale IQ. Results indicate that high-knowledge participants had significantly higher LMI scores at baseline and over time compared to low-knowledge participants. The ANT scores did not differ among the groups. Ability to read music was associated with higher mean scores for both ANT and LMI over time. Early- to midlife musical training may be associated with improved late-life episodic and semantic memory as well as a useful marker of cognitive reserve.

Three separate studies were conducted in school, residential and after-school care settings to test the effectiveness of a music therapy-based social skills intervention program on improving social competence in children and adolescents. A total of 45 children (n = 12; n = 13; n = 20) aged 6-17 years with social skills deficits participated in a group-based five session intervention program. The same curriculum, adapted to be age appropriate, was used at all 3 sites. Specific deficits within the social skills areas of peer relations and self-management skills were targeted. Active interventions like music performance, movement to music and improvisation were used. Cognitive-behavioral techniques like modeling, feedback, transfer training and problem solving were also incorporated. Data on social functioning were collected before, during, and after the music therapy intervention from participants, appropriate adult personnel and via behavioral observations. Results indicated that significant improvements in social functioning were found in (a) school participant pre and post self-ratings, (b) researcher pre and post ratings of school participants, (c) case manager's pre and post treatment ratings for the residential participants, (d) after-school care participants' pre and post self-ratings, and (e) behavioral observations at all three settings. Additional changes, although not significant, were noted in teacher ratings, residential participant self- and peer ratings, and after-school case manager ratings. Results from these studies suggest that the music therapy intervention was effective in improving social competence in children and adolescents with social deficits. More research is warranted to provide additional guidance about the use of music therapy interventions to improve social functioning.

Behavioral contracting has been used as a tool to modify behavior in a variety of settings, and the purpose of this study was to determine the impact of behavioral contracting on the acquisition of guitar performance skills in a college-level beginning guitar class. Music and nonmusic majors enrolled in 4 college-level beginning guitar classes participated in this study. Participants (N = 27) were divided into four groups, with Groups 1 and 2 serving as control (n = 5, n = 6) and Groups 3 and 4 serving as experimental (n = 7, n = 9). A Multiple baseline format was implemented that involved 3 testing conditions (T1, T2, T3). Participants played the same I-IV-V7-1 chord progression for all 3 testing conditions. Experimental Group 3 received a behavioral contract between T1 and T2, while experimental Group 4 received a contract between T2 and T3. Participants in the contracting groups were allowed to make structured choices about evaluation procedures and reward outcomes. Data on speed increase and accuracy were collected via videotaping and analyzed by an independent reviewer blind to condition. Two-way repeated measures ANOVAs were used to analyze differences in tempo and errors. A significant interaction was found for tempo and group and a significant difference in errors was found across treatment conditions. However, no significance was found between the groups for errors. Graphic analysis of tempo changes indicated that Group 1 improved tempo by a total of 41%, Group 2 by a total of 38%, Group 3 (contract) by a total of 76% and Group 4 (contract) by a total of 67%. Both contracting groups showed the biggest decrease in errors during the contracting condition, although errors actually increased slightly for Group 3 once the contracting condition was removed.