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UVOD Neuromuskularne bolesti (NMB) karakterizirane su progresivnom slabošću skeletne, respiratorne i bulbarne muskulature, slabošću srčanog mišića. Uglavnom su to rijetke, nasljedne bolesti progresivnog tijeka, najčešće sa smrtnim ishodom. U dječjoj dobi govorimo o spinalnim mišićnim atrofijama (SMA), mišićnim distrofijama (Duchenne, Becker) te o nasljednim miopatijama (nemalinska miopatija). Respiratorna simptomatologija uvjetuje trajanje životnog vijeka. Pojava zatajenja disanja može biti akutna ili sporo progresivna. Simptomi kronične respiracijske insuficijencije nespecifični su i često se previde. METODOLOGIJA /REZULTATI Neinvazivna intermitentna pozitivna ventilacija (NIV) prihvaćeni je tretman za pacijente sa zatajenjem disanja zbog neuromišićne bolesti. To je oblik mehaničke ventilacije bez potrebe za endotrahealnim putom. Radi se o etabliranom pristupu pacijentima sa respiracijskom insuficijencijom. NIV kao terapijska opcija normalizira oksigenaciju, ima utjecaj na prirodni tijek NMB i odgađa endotrahealnu intubaciju. Noćna ventilacija NIV-om kontrolira poremećaj spavanja i disanja, poboljšava izmjenu plinova tijekom dana bez dodatka kisika. NIV u neuromuskularnim bolestima dječje dobi treba započeti čim registriramo dnevnu hiperkapniju, zatim nakon akutne respiratorne insuficijencije i kod pojave noćne hipoventilacije. Jedna od ključnih pretraga kojom postavljamo indikaciju za NIV je polisomnografija. Nakon postavljanja indikacije za NIV slijedi odabir odgovarajuće maske. Neuspjeh NIV-a manifestira se hemodinamskom nestabilnošću, lošijim mentalnim statusom, ubrzavanjem disanja, rastućom respiratornom acidozom, nemogućnošću održavanja adekvatne saturacije kisika, problemima sa sekretom te netolerancijom aparata. ZAKLJUČAK Obzirom da su donedavno neuromuskularne bolesti imale lošu prognozu i fatalan ishod prije odrasle dobi, NIV se kao jedna od terapijskih opcija nametnuo kao najadekvatniji način usporenja razvoja kronične respiracijske insuficijencije, poboljšanja kvalitete i produljenja životnog vijeka malih pacijenata.

Prekomjerna primjena fungicida na poljoprivrednim površinama može imati negativan učinak na organizme tla, poput enhitreja, te posljedično utjecati na kvalitetu tla. Enhitreje su prepoznate kao pokazatelji kvalitete tla [1], a u ekosustavima tla obavljaju istu funkcionalnu ulogu kao gujavice [2]. Na površinama s intenziviranom obradom dolazi do smanjenja brojnosti ili potpunog izostanka gujavica, dok se aktivnost enhitreja povećava [3]. Međutim, njihova uloga u tlu ih čini lakim metama onečišćenja okoliša. Postojeća znanja o učincima strobilurinskih fungicida stečena su prvenstveno na temelju ispitivanja toksičnosti aktivnih sastojaka, dok su učinci komercijalnih preparata i dalje nejasni [4]. Stoga je cilj ovog rada pridonijeti novim saznanjima o učincima tri komercijalna preparata strobilurinskih fungicida na vrstu Enchytraeus albidus. Testirani su fungicidi Retengo® (piraklostrobin - PYR), Zato WG 50® (trifloksistrobin - TRI) i Stroby WG® (kresoksim- metil - KM). Dobiveni rezultati ukazali su kako na preživljavanje i reprodukciju enhitreja najviše djeluje PYR (LC50=7, 57 mga.i./kgtla, EC50=0, 98 mga.i./kgtla), a zatim TRI (LC50=72, 98 mga.i./kgtla, EC50 =16, 93 mga.i./kgtla) i KM (LC50=73, 12 mga.i./kgtla, EC50=>30 mga.i./kgtla). Nakon sedam dana izlaganja, aktivnost mehanizma multiksenobiotske rezistentnosti (MXR) je inhibirana pri najvišim koncentracijama svih testiranih fungicida. Nadalje, pojava oksidativnog stresa (indukcija enzima SOD, CAT i GST) uočena je nakon sedam dana izlaganja, dok je povećanje lipidne peroksidacije uočeno nakon 21. dana. Izloženost fungicidima dovela je do promjena u raspoloživoj energiji, te izazvala promjene u omjeru glavnih metabolita (ugljikohidrata, lipida i proteina). Nakon izlaganja KM smanjenje raspoložive energije bilo je posljedica prekomjernog trošenja energije zbog istovremene obrane od oksidativnog stresa i reprodukcije, dok su enhitreje izložene TRI nedostatak energije kompenzirale izostankom reprodukcije. Visoka toksičnost PYR uzrokovala je smanjenje energetskih zaliha bez obzira na izostanak reprodukcije. Iako su svi testirani komercijalni proizvodi pokazali negativan učinak na enhitreje, ozbiljnost i način djelovanja su se razlikovali, naglašavajući važnost temeljite procjene više krajnjih točaka u različitim vremenskim razdobljima.

Due to their high efficiency, broad spectrum, and security to crops, strobilurin fungicides are among the most widely used agricultural fungicides. With extensive and continuous use, strobilurin fungicide residues can occur in soil, air, and water, leading to ecological impact and potentially adverse impact on nontarget organisms. Commercial preparations of fungicides often get applied directly in soil ecosystems through agricultural practices, even though only the effects of the active substance are included in common EU regulations. Thus, the toxicity of commercial fungicide preparations should be investigated in more detail to better understand their effects on e.g. enchytraeids that are known to play an important role in soil fertility and quality. In addition, enchytraeids are often used as a model organism in soil ecotoxicology. To fill the knowledge gaps about the impact of strobilurin fungicides on enchytraeids, this study evaluated the impact of three commercial products on E. albidus. To obtain a broader picture of the mode of action, multiple endpoints were assessed. The test species E. albidus was exposed to commercial fungicide products based on the active ingredients pyraclostrobin (Retengo), trifloxystrobin (Zato WG) and kresoxim-methyl (Stroby WG). Standard guidelines for the Enchytraeid Reproduction Test were followed. Standard enchytraeid reproduction test (ERT) showed that, in terms of survival, pyraclostrobin (LC50=7.57 mg/kg) was the most toxic, followed by trifloxystrobin (LC50 = 72.98 mg/kg) and kresoxim-methyl (LC50=73.12 mg/kg). Reproduction was affected in the same order (pyraclostrobin EC50=0.98mg/kg, trifloxystrobin EC50=9.39 mg/kg and kresoxim-methyl EC50=>30 mg/kg). Furthermore, tested fungicides exhibited adverse effects on MXR activity, biochemical parameters of oxidative stress (superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione S- transferase (GST) activity, and lipid peroxidation - malondialdehyde (MDA) content), and available energy (protein, lipid and carbohydrate content). Results of this study show a broad spectrum of negative effects of the investigated fungicides on enchytraeids, and also indicate the need to investigate, not only the active substances, but also the commercial preparations. Otherwise, environmental risks could be significantly underestimated.

Vodozemci su prepoznati kao globalno najugroženija skupina kralježnjaka, a jedan od uzroka je primjena različitih ksenobiotika kao što su pesticidi. U ovom radu istražen je utjecaj različitih pesticida na razvoj jaja crvenog mukača, Bombina bombina. Korišteni su dimetoat, pirimifos-metil i glifosat, pri različitim temperaturama. Promatrana je dinamika izlijeganja izloženih jaja pri temperaturama od 8 °C, 12 °C, 18 °C, 25 °C i 30 °C te je uspoređena s kontrolnom skupinom. Temperatura od 8 °C je bila preniska za embrionalni razvoj crvenog mukača, neovisno o tretmanu. Pri temperaturi od 12 °C, jaja tretirana pirimifos-metilom su se izlegla prije kontrolne skupine i skupine izložene dimetoatu. Pirimifos-metil i dimetoat su pokazali najjače djelovanje na embrionalni razvoj pri temperaturi od 30 °C, gdje je došlo do njegovog produljenja. Nadalje, ovo istraživanje je potvrdilo negativno djelovanje glifosata na embrionalni razvoj žaba koji je ranije zabilježen na drugim vrstama vodozemaca, te se niti jedno jaje iz ove skupine nije izleglo.

Strobilurin fungicides (SFs) are a group of new fungicides produced by strobilurin A as a lead compound. Azoxystrobin, the best-selling SF, is a highly efficient broad-spectrum fungicide with relatively high-water solubility, which can lead to accumulation in water, sediments, and soil. Due to its wide application and impact on non-target soil organisms, azoxystrobin has attracted attention. Soil dwelling organisms are among the first in line of exposure to pesticides. However, their risks are often based on the pure active ingredient (AI) and not on the commercial products (CPs) actually applied in the field. Enchytraeus albidus is a model species in soil ecotoxicology used for the assessment of environmental risk. Due to their important role in proper soil functioning, it is essential to investigate the toxicity and adverse effects of fungicides used in agriculture on enchytraeids. Previous research has demonstrated a negative impact of azoxystrobin on the reproduction and oxidative status of earthworms, and the survival, reproduction, and hatching success in enchytraeids. However, most studies have assessed the effect of AI, while only a few use a CP. Therefore, we investigated the effects of pure AI, azoxystrobin, and CP Quadris on survival, reproduction, MXR activity and oxidative stress biomarkers in E. albidus. The results showed that CP exhibited higher toxicity in terms of survival (LC50CP = 16.7 mg/kg soil, LC50AI = 15.3 mg/kg soil), while reproduction was affected only by CP (EC50 = 3 mg/kg soil). Furthermore, while AI caused induction of the multixenobiotic resistance system, CP caused inhibition. Moreover, although both tested substances caused oxidative stress, the toxicity of the CP was higher and long term impact in form of lipid peroxidation was observed. These results suggest the importance of evaluating the effect of AI and CP. Furthermore, to obtain more accurate information on the mode of action, access is required through different endpoints. These findings highlight the need to further explore the toxicity of CPs compared to AIs, in order to predict a more realistic environmental hazard of fungicides.

Vodozemci su prepoznati kao globalno najugroženija skupina kralježnjaka, a jedan od uzroka je primjena različitih ksenobiotika kao što su pesticidi. U ovom radu istražen je utjecaj različitih pesticida na razvoj jaja crvenog mukača, Bombina bombina. Korišteni su dimetoat, pirimifos-metil i glifosat, pri različitim temperaturama. Promatrana je dinamika izlijeganja izloženih jaja pri temperaturama od 8°C, 12°C, 18°C, 25°C i 30°C te uspoređena s kontrolnom skupinom. Temperatura od 8°C je bila preniska za embrionalni razvoj crvenog mukača, neovisno o tretmanu. Pri temperaturi od 12°C, jaja tretirana pirimifos-metilom su se izlegla prije kontrolne skupine i skupine izložene dimetoatu. Pirimifos-metil i dimetoat su pokazali najjače djelovanje na embrionalni razvoj pri temperaturi od 30°C, gdje je došlo do njegovog produljenja. Nadalje, ovo istraživanje je potvrdilo negativno djelovanje glifosata na embrionalni razvoj žaba koji je ranije zabilježen na drugim vrstama vodozemaca, te se niti jedno jaje iz ove skupine nije izleglo., Amphibians are recognized as the globally most endangered group of vertebrates, one of the reasons being the application of various xenobiotics, such as pesticides. The paper examines the impact of different pesticides on the Bombina bombina egg development. Dimethoate, pirimiphos-methyl and glyphosate at different temperatures were used. The hatching of exposed eggs was observed at temperatures of 8°C, 12°C, 18°C, 25°C and 30°C, and compared to the control group. Regardless of the treatment, the temperature of 8°C was too low for the embryonic development of the European fire-bellied toad. At the temperature of 12°C, the eggs treated with pirimiphos-methyl hatched before those in the control group and group exposed to dimethoate. Pirimiphos-methyl and dimethoate had the strongest impact on the embryonic development at the temperature of 30°C, causing its prolongation. In addition, this research confirmed the negative impact of glyphosate on embryonic development of toads, earlier recorded in other amphibian species, with no eggs from this group hatching., Amphibien sind die weltweit am meisten gefährdete Gruppe von Wirbeltieren und einer der Gründe dafür ist die Anwendung verschiedener Xenobiotika wie zum Beispiel Pestizide. In dieser Arbeit wurde der Einfluss verschiedener Pestizide auf die Entwicklung von Larven der Rotbauchunken, Bombina Bombina, untersucht. Dimethoat, Pirimiphos-Methyl und Glyphosat wurden bei unterschiedlichen Temperaturen benutzt. Beobachtet wurde die Dynamik der ausgesetzten Schlüpfung bei Temperaturen von 8°C, 12°C, 18°C, 25°C und 30°C und mit der Kontrollgruppe verglichen. Die Temperatur von 8°C war zu niedrig für eine embryonale Entwicklung der Rotbauchunken, unabhängig von der Behandlung. Bei der Temperatur von 12°C schlüpften Eier, die mit Pirimiphos-Methyl behandelt wurden, vor der Kontrollgruppe und der Gruppe, die Dimethoat ausgesetzt war. Pirimiphos-Methyl und Dimethoat zeigten die stärkste Wirkung auf die Embryoentwicklung bei der Temperatur von 30°C, wo es zu einer Verlängerung kam. Diese Untersuchung bestätigte außerdem eine negative Wirkung von Glyphosat auf die Embryoentwicklung der Frösche, die früher bei anderen Amphibien festgestellt wurde, kein Ei aus dieser Gruppe schlüpfte.

Rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns greatly influence the distribution of indigenous mosquito species and the spread of invasive species. With expanded spatial and temporal distributions of mosquito vectors including Aedes and Culex species that transmit medically important arboviruses, mosquito population control is becoming increasingly important. Therefore, in response to the expansion of the range of mosquito species, a more widespread and intensive use of pesticides is predicted over time. This also means greater exposure of agricultural areas and plantations to chemicals used for mosquito control, where most commonly used pesticides are known to have a negative impact on human health. Spatio-temporal mosquito population models have proven to be a useful tool for optimizing and reducing the cost of mosquito population control. However, local scale predictive mosquito population models could also be used for targeted treatment of larval and adult mosquito stages in agricultural land. Consequently, using these models for decision-making purposes would result in reduced human exposure to pesticides through their diet and, thus, improvement of food safety and reduction of human health risks associated with excessive exposure to pesticides.

Enchytraeids are ecologically relevant soil organisms, which play an important role in organic matter decomposition and soil bioturbation. They live in close contact with the pore water fraction of soil which makes them vulnerable to xenobiotics exposure. MXR proteins (efflux pump) transfer certain groups of xenobiotics out of the cell and keep the intracellular concentration of these compounds low. They are present in all organisms, including microbes, plants, invertebrates and vertebrates. In the phylum Annelida MXR activity was discovered mainly in earthworm species but none enchytraeids. For the identification of MXR system activity fluorescent substrates are often used. In case of MXR system inhibition, the concentration of the substrate in the cells increases, and this can be seen as a rise in fluorescence. Enchytraeids were exposed in distilled and ISO test water, with or without specific inhibitors and inducers at various concentrations for 1 h in the dark. After pretreatment they were exposed to various concentrations of Rhodamine B (RhB) or Rhodamine 123 (Rh123). The measurement of RhB and Rh123 amount in samples were conducted immediately after centrifugation. The samples were kept in dark due to the photo degradation of RhB and Rh123. The amount of RhB and Rh123 in the samples was measured using spectoflourometer. Using RhB and R123 as the fluorescent substrate, it could be seen that different substrates and chemosensitizers have an effect on the amount of fluorescence in the E. albidus and E. crypticus. Some metal nanoparticles and pesticides are ubiquitous environmental toxicants and potential MXR modulators that pose a continuing risk to many non-target species. The ability of enchytraeids to remove the xenobiotics from the cells will greatly impact the final harmful effects. Determining presence and function of the MXR in enchytraeids can help us to understand the consequences of MXR inhibition at the population and ecosystem level. This study shows that enchytraeids, as a model species in terrestrial ecotoxicology, possess MXR activity and that different substrates and chemosensitizers have an impact on it. Therefore, it can be presumed that xenobiotics present in the environment will have an effect on MXR system as well. Due to the influence of MXR activity on bioaccumulation and toxicity of various compounds, the assessment of MXR activity could be a valuable complementary biomarker in ecotoxicological research and risk assessment.

Amphibians are the most threatened group of vertebrates and as such are of great interest in ecotoxicological research. In the latest years, utilization of nanomaterials is more widespread and due to that, the chance for its presence in the environment is increasing daily. One of these nanoparticles is copper which is used, among others, in certain pesticides and as such can easily find its way into the environment. In our study we examined the influence of nano and bulk copper on frog embryos and larvae. We tested the influence of a single exposure, at the beginning of the experiment, of four different concentrations of nano (declared size 40-60 nm) and bulk (ionic) copper on egg clutches of agile frog, Rana dalmatina. Each concentration was examined in triplicate, with 30 eggs each. Eight days after the last tadpole hatched, we homogenized tadpoles from each replicate and analyzed protein, lipid and glucose content and compared it to the control treatment. Our results show clear trend in increase of protein content with the increase of concentration in both nano and bulk treatment. The opposite trend is evident in carbohydrate content with the control treatment having higher recorded values, than both nano and bulk treatments. Content of lipids varied within nano treatment and was comparable to the control, and bulk treatment had lower lipid content than both, control and nano treatment. All these results suggest possible negative influence of nano and bulk copper on tadpole growth and metabolism.

Due to the antimicrobial properties of silver, its nanoparticles have soon found their wide use. Despite that, their effect has been insufficiently researched. Nanoparticles can be easily transmitted to water systems, which leads to a greater risk of soil contamination. Because of their ability to enter cells and cause the interaction with cell structures, it is important to understand their behavior and destiny in the ecosystem. The aim of this research was to explore how different sizes of silver nanoparticles can influence the reproduction in the E.albidus species. Organisms are exposed to nanoparticles of 35, 50-60 and 150nm size, as well as with silver nitrate (AgNO3), which served as control. As expected, AgNO3 showed toxicity even in considerably lower concentration than nanoparticles. Considering that it has been proposed that the size and the shape are the crucial aspects of toxicity because they affect the manner of organism entrance, these results can be explained by the slower release of silver ion from nanoparticles, or with the reduced entrance to the organism due to size. Nanoparticles of 150nm size have shown the greatest toxicity among nanoparticles. Even though previous research has shown that smaller nanoparticles cause greater toxicity, these results can be explained by a greater amount of ions released to the soil.

A multixenobiotic resistance mechanism (MXR) is a cellular detoxification mechanism present in all organisms, including microbes, plants, invertebrates and vertebrates. It is mediated by the activity of the ATP‐binding cassette (ABC) transporters. The MXR proteins (efflux pump) transfer certain groups of xenobiotics out of the cell and keep the intracellular concentration of these compounds low. The enchytraeids are the ecologically relevant soil organisms, which play an important role in an organic matter decomposition and soil bioturbation. In the phylum Annelida MXR, an activity was discovered mainly in the earthworm species, but there were no enchytraeid species discovered. For the identification of an efflux pump activity, fluorescent substrates are often used. In case of an MXR system inhibition, the concentration of substrate in the cells increases, and this can be seen as a rise in fluorescence. Two enchytraeid species (Enchytraeus albidus and E. crypticus) were exposed to an ISO test water, with or without specific chemosensitizers, at various concentrations. Subsequent to a pretreatment, they were exposed to the fluorescent substrates, Rhodamine B (RhB) or Rhodamine 123 (Rh123). The amount of RhB and Rh123 in the samples was measured using a spectrofluorometer. Using the RhB and R123 as a fluorescent substrate, it could be seen that different substrates and chemosensitizers exert an effect on the amount of fluorescence in the enchytraeids. The ability of enchytraeids to remove the xenobiotics from the cells will greatly impact the final detrimental effects. Determining a presence and function of the MXR in enchytraeids can help us understand the consequences of MXR inhibition at the population and ecosystem level. This study demonstrates that the enchytraeids, as a model species in the terrestrial ecotoxicology, possess an MXR activity and that different substrates and chemosensitizers have an impact on it. Therefore, it can be presumed that the xenobiotics present in the environment will have an effect on an MXR system as well. Due to the influence of an MXR activity on the bioaccumulation and toxicity of various compounds, the assessment of an MXR activity could be a valuable complementary biomarker in ecotoxicological research and risk assessment.

Main reasons for the investigation of population dynamics are understanding, predicting and describing population growth, estimating population extinction risks, and improving control methods. For vectors, such as mosquitoes, studying population dynamics can be useful for other reasons, such as combining population models with the epidemiological models or predictions, as well as for the planning and optimisation of control methods. Matrix population models have long been used in modelling and describing the dynamics of different populations. These types of discrete mathematical models enable modelling of age-structured populations or populations structured by developmental stages, i.e. predicting the number of individuals of a certain age or developmental stage after a selected time interval. In this study, matrix population models were constructed for two mosquito species, Aedes vexans and Culex pipiens, and also for three different ecological categories of earthworms, epigeic, endogeic and anecic. Using constructed models, it is possible to investigate population dynamics of modelled species and perform various simulations that enable the determination of population responses to environmental stress or climate change ; to investigate and optimise control measures ; to detect the most vulnerable developmental stages. Both population models, mosquito and earthworm, are constructed entirely based on the available literature and experimental data. Models are also forced by environmental factors relevant for modelled species (mosquito models: air temperature, rainfall, Danube and Drava water levels, photoperiod ; earthworm models: soil temperature and soil humidity). The main aim of this study is to present various possibilities of mathematical models and their application in biology and ecology.

When assessing the toxicity of pesticides and other chemicals to non- target organisms the most common experimental set-up is an exposure to a single compound. However, it is more likely for organisms under the environmental conditions to be exposed to a combination of chemicals that have different modes of action and potentially can interact with each other. The aim of this research was to investigate the effects of a mixture of ZnO and chlorpyriphos (CHP) on biochemical biomarkers and reproductive success of the earthworm Dendrobaena veneta with possible differences in effects of ZnO in nano and bulk form, and the difference of effects in various soils. EC50 values for reproduction of D. veneta after exposure to CHP and ZnO were calculated and used in the binary toxicity experiment. Concentrations were as follows, with EC50 being 100%: 100% CHP, 75% CHP/25% ZnO, 50% CHP/50% ZnO, 25% CHP/ 75% ZnO, 100% ZnO. ZnO was separately tested as bulk and nano sized particles and CHP was tested as a commercial preparations. The entire experiment was conducted according to the OECD earthworm reproduction test. At the end of the experiment the number of juveniles and activities of AChE, CAT, GST, TBARS, MT and PC were measured. The concentrations of pesticides in soil samples were measured with UPLC and the concentrations of Zn was measured with the energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence technique (EDXRF). CHP had a clear effect on AChE activity with almost 50% inhibition after 28 days of exposure in artificial soil. CAT activity did not change on any concentration, for both nZnO and bZnO, while GST activity decreased. The number of juveniles was significantly reduced with all mixture ratios. In natural soil CAT activity was also unaffected with bZn, and slightly inducted with nZnO/CHP combination. The inhibition of AChE was present at all applied combinations. In natural soil the number of juveniles was reduced with nZnO, while it remained the same as control after bZnO exposure. The effects of combined exposure of CHP and ZnO varied depending on the form of ZnO applied as well as on the characteristics of the soil in which the earthworms were exposed. More biomarkers should be employed to elucidate which low- level biomarker can be linked with the effects on the higher (reproductive) level.

Object. Today's intensive agriculture has resulted in increasing usage of pesticides that carry a certain environmental risk. Inevitably, pesticides affect nontarget organisms as well. Due to their ecological significance, earthworms have been used as indicators for assessing the potential impacts of chemicals on soil organisms. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of commercial herbicidal preparations to the earthworm Dendrobaena veneta (Rosa 1886). Those effects were investigated by measuring biochemical biomarkers and reproduction of the earthworm D. veneta after exposure to selected herbicides. The applied concentrations were environmentally relevant, with the highest concentration resembling the maximum application rate of the commercial preparation. Method. Three herbicides were tested: tembotrione (TBT), glyphosate (GLF) and nicosulfuron (NCS), all of them widely and frequently used. The earthworms were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations for 7 days (subchronic test) and 28 days (reproduction test). After each exposure molecular biomarkers were spectrophotometrically measured: acetylcholinesterase (AChE), glutathione Stransferase (GST), catalase (CAT) and lipid peroxidation level (TBARS). Additionally the earthworms were weighted prior and after the exposure. After 28 days, in reproduction test, the number of cocoons and after 56 days the number of juveniles and unhatched cocoons were recorded. Result. After both 7 and 28 days of exposure to selected herbicides a statistically significant changes (p < 0.05, p ≤ 0.01, p ≤ 0.001) were found between control and treated earthworms. No mortality was recorded in any of the treatments. Glyphosate significantly induced AChE after 7 days at the highest concentration, the CAT activities were higher (more at 7 days), GST was significantly induced after 18 days and TBARS produced at the highest concentration. Nicosulfuron induced AChE activity after 28 days, had no effect on CAT, depleted GST activity and induced TBARS production. Tembotrione inhibited AChE activities, inhibited CAT after 7 days, depleted GST activities after 7 and 28 days and induced TBARS production at the highest concentration after 28 days. After 28 days of exposure the number of cocoons per earthworm was significantly lower than control only in C2 treatments with GLF and TBT. Interestingly, the number of juveniles per earthworm was The 1st International Earthworm Congress (IEC 1) 24th-29th, June 2018, Shanghai, China 141 significantly higher than control after exposure to C2 and C3 treatments with NCS. There was no significant reduction of juveniles per earthworm under any treatment. Conclusion. The activities of measured biomarkers varied depending on the herbicide used and the exposure duration. Although the changes were unambiguous, they indicate that oxidative stress could be an important factor in the toxicity of the studied herbicides. In this research the strongest adverse effects to D. veneta were exerted by tembotrione which should be further investigated. The future research should focus on the consequences of oxidative stress in multigeneration experiments, as well as in the mixture experiments using environmentally relevant pesticide combinations. Additionally, this research points to the importance of testing commercial formulations as they often display different (stronger or weaker) effects than the pure active substance.

The spatial and temporal variability of earthworm populations is very high, both within and between differently managed types of land. Earthworms show clumped, patchy distribution (Rossi and Lavelle, 1998, Jiménez et al., 2001, Decaëns et al., 2003). This horizontal distribution is mainly a response to a spatial heterogeneity primarily determined with physico- chemical parameters of soil and food availability on various scales. In a given plot, the earthworm density depends on a group of different factors and which factor is the most limiting varies between ecosystems and earthworm species (Decaëns et al., 1997). One approach in the description and explanation of variation in their distribution is a geostatistical analysis. The aim of this study was to characterize the spatial variability of earthworm communities in grassland habitat in two consecutive seasons in relation to the habitat microtopography in order to facilitate earthworm sampling design. The variability was analyzed according to the earthworm species, ecological category (epigeic, endogeic or anecic), age (adult or juvenile) and habitat microtopography. Earthworms were sampled along a vertically stratified transect at 7 locations, at each location a 49 sampling points were arranged in a regular grid. To obtain high resolution microtopographic profile, elevation on each site was measured with the optical leveling instrument on multiple points. Data were used to create a digital elevation model (DEM) of each site revealing very subtle depressions and mounds. To test the spatial distribution of a single species a Morisita index of intraspecific aggregation (Iδ) was calculated, spatial autocorellation was tested with Geary's C and Moran's I index and semivariograms were calculated for each species, season and location.The results of this research show a patchy distribution of majority of adult individuals, and almost all juveniles. The Morosita index values from the literature are mostly higher, i.e indicate a stronger aggregation from the values obtained within this research. However, the differences in index values are probably the consequence of earthworm population seasonal dynamics. Namely, as it is evident from our results that the earthworm patches change their size and position over time, i.e. the strength of aggregation varies. The index values for a particular species changed independently of season and location. In this research the range of semivariograms for all species and life stages was 8.67 m. For adult earthworms a range was somewhat smaller (8.37 m), while for juveniles it was bigger (9.2 m). The semivariogram range for a particular species in this research where lower than the ones in the literature. With this research a structure on small distances were detected which confirmes that earthworm populations are structured, including autocorrelation on spatial distance of

Populacije komaraca su izuzetno stabilne i otporne na kratkotrajni i sezonski stres. Stoga, kako bi se smanjila ukupna populacija komaraca u okvirima realnih troškova i realnih mogućnosti iznimno je važno poznavati dinamiku te ponašanje populacija komaraca pri različitim okolišnim čimbenicima i stresu. U ovom radu načinjeni su diskretni matematički modeli dinamike populacija komaraca pomoću kojih je pokazano na koji način i u kojoj mjeri je dinamika populacije komaraca ovisna o abiotičkim čimbenicima te su istraženi odgovori populacija modeliranih vrsta na promjene klimatskih čimbenika. Istražene su mogućnosti planiranja kontrole populacija komaraca na temelju rezultata modela te metode optimizacije primjene adulticida i larvicida. Tijekom izrade ovog rada korištena su softverska i hardverska rješenja temeljena na suvremenoj tehnologiji paralelnog računanja i GPU.

Soil enchytraeids play significant role in improving the soil pore structure and the degradation of organic matter. They are used as standard organism models for chemical testing, using survival and reproduction as endpoints, and in recent studies biochemical markers. Both titanium-dioxide and zinc-oxide nanoparticles are given considerable attention due to their use in ultraviolet light protection and as catalysts. It is known that both Ti and Zn nanoparticles interact directly with tissue, but they also cause oxidative stress. In this study, Enchytraeus albidus was exposed to different concentrations of both nano and bulk forms of titanium-dioxide and zinc-oxide using three different exposure routes. Artificial soil was used for a terrestrial system and soil extract and reconstituted water for aquatic systems. The measured endpoints were survival of organisms and biochemical markers ; catalase (CAT), acethylcholinesterase (AchE) and glutathion S-transferase (GST). The results showed that soil extract was not suitable as medium for testing chemicals since it showed a 100% mortality. Both titanium-dioxide and zinc-oxide were toxic in bulk and nano form in artificial soil and reconstituted water, although chemicals in reconstituted water appeared to be more than 1000 times more toxic than in soil.

Earthworms became the most used biological model in toxicity assays and environmental monitoring studies, particularly for the toxicity of pesticides on soil ecosystems. Although some pesticides are reported safe for non-target invertebrates there are not tested with possibility of soil temperature and moisture regime change. Results of many studies show a general warming in all seasons and soil depths in the observed periods for soil temperatures, with change in soil moisture as well. The aim of this study is to investigate the biochemical responses of earthworm Eisenia fetida and its gut microbial activity after exposure to propiconazole (PCZ) and chlorantraniliprole (CAP) under different temperature and moisture regimes. Chosen temperatures were 20 C and 25 C and soil moisture 30% and 50%. Activities of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), catalase (CAT) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) were measured after 7 days of exposure and, after transfer to clean soil, 1, 3, 5 and 10 days post exposure. Additionally, gut microbial activity was investigated by conducting crystal violet (CV) test and dehydrogenase activity (INT) measuring on earthworm faeces obtain after exposure and each post-exposure sampling. Some of the results were as expected considering the stress elicited by higher temperature and low soil moisture, but the increased activity of acetylcholinesterase obtained after exposure was not expected.

Optimalno suvremeno rješavanje okolišnih problema podrazumijeva multidisciplinaran pristup i po mogućnosti obuhvaćanje više problema u jednom rješenju. Nezaobilazan nusprodukt proizvodnje aluminija je crveni mulj. Produkcija aluminija raste, a tako i količina crvenog mulja koji se smatra toksičnim otpadom, te se većinom odlaže u umjetne ili prirodne depresije. Dobivanje energije iz obnovljivih izvora je civilizacijski prioritet. Jedan od smjerova razvoja novih energetskih tehnologija je i dobivanje energenata iz algi. Dosadašnja istraživanja su pokazala da bi se upotrebom crvenog mulja u proizvodnji algi, s jedne strane mogao smanjivati potencijal toksičnosti crvenog mulja, a s druge strane povećati proizvodnja algi koje bi mogle biti korištene za dobivanje energenata. U ovom radu korišten je crveni mulj iz Mađarske (Ajka rezervoar). Mjerene su razlike u brzini i dinamici rasta algi u ovisnosti o količini upotrijebljenog crvenog mulja, kao i promjene toksičnog potencijala crvenog mulja izmjerene setom biokemijskih markera na crvenoj kompoštarki (Eisenia fetida). Rezultati su pokazali statistički značajnu i mjerljivu razliku u toksičnom potencijalu smjese crvenog mulja i medija za uzgoj alga, prije i nakon uzgoja u trajanju od 21 dan. Usporedba dinamike rasta alga u mediju bez i sa sadržajem crvenog mulja pokazala je primjenjivost crvenog mulja u postupku uzgoja algi.

Matematički modeli su sastavni dio svakog suvremenog rješavanja problema u okolišu jer osim pronalaženja matematičkih zakonitosti problema modeli mogu u većoj ili manjoj mjeri sadržavati predikcijsku snagu iskoristivu za donošenje odluka te planiranje i monitoring mjera zaštite prirode i okoliša. Popovska gaovica (Delminichthys ghetaldii) je ugrožena vrsta šaranki koja obitava na širem području hercegovačkog i južnodalmatinskog krša. Za potrebe rješavanja jednog od okolišnih problema zahvata HE Ombla, bilo je potrebno ustanoviti da li primjerci ove vrste, koji obitavaju na području izvorišta rijeke Omble, čine samostalnu populaciju ili su samo dio veće populacijske cjeline (metapopulacije). Posebna teškoća u rješavanju ovog problema činila je činjenica da je popovska gaovica relativno slabo istražena i da je vrlo malo dostupnih podataka. Na temelju postojećih podataka, osobnih iskustava istraživača i njihovog mišljenja te teorije, načinjeno je nekoliko hipoteza. Primjenom diskretnog matričnog modeliranja u sprezi s metodama opetovanog podatkovnog uzorkovanja, utvrdile su se vjerojatnosti svake od pretpostavljenih hipoteza. Pokazano je da je popovska gaovica prisutna na području izvorišta rijeke Omble dio puno veće populacije te da bi zahvat HE Ombla, barem što se tiče opstanka ove vrste na tom području, imao pozitivan učinak.

Fluctuations in size and changes in age structure of mosquito populations during the year are important parameters necessary for planning and implementation of mosquito control measures. Additionally, mosquito population dynamic is an exceptionally interesting academic question due to its periodic chaos system and susceptibility to Allee‐effect. It is those characteristics that make mosquito population dynamic difficult to predict using the usual methods. Until now, discrete Leslie‐Lefkovitch matrix models (MLL) showed the best results in mosquito population dynamic modelling. To improve result prediction properties of larvicides and adulticides, and to contribute to the development of computer support to the deciding system, program modules based on genetic algorithms were added to the existing models. This hybrid system was used to make a series of predictions whic h were compared to the predictions made by simple MLL‐system. Hybrid system, aside from improving prediction of treatment results, showed new applicable model properties which significantly contribute to computer management of mosquito control.

Regardless of the level at which biological (ecological) system is observed, it is possible to detect parameters of these systems sensitive to different environmental factors - biomarkers. Such measurable changes of system parameters are called biomarkers. Depending on the system level there are molecular, biochemical, cellular, histological, organismal, populational, biocenosical, and ecosystemical biomarkers. Biomarkers of levels below organismal are considered as microbiomarkers while the biomarkers of other, higher levels, are considered as macrobiomarkers. Until now, the attention to biomarkers was given manly in terms of detection of environmental pollution (as a part of early warning systems) and of environmental risk assessment. Our research on few biomarkers has shown that some of them are specifically sensitive to long-term changes of temperature. Namely, with application of a multivariate and modeling approach in research we have proved that the short and long term changes of environmental temperature alter the properties of some biomarkers in at last two different ways. Microscale level. Increase of freshwater temperature leads to the domination of cyanobacteria among phytoplankton. Some species of Cyanobacteria produce toxins that affect other organisms in various ways. Namely, these toxins in fish such as carp (Cyprinus carpio), prussian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) and brown bullhead (Ameiurus nebulosus) cause significant decrease of ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity. As EROD activity is a well-known biomarker of environmental pollution with planar PAH, the presence of Cyanobacteria hinders the correct interpretation of biomonitoring results. While the short-term exposure of fish to cyanotoxins causes reduced expression of EROD biomarker, the long term exposure (which does not necessarily have to be continuous) causes reduced expression but also an induction of this biomarker. Macroscale level. Populations of some insects in continental, sub Mediterranean and Mediterranean climate zones, have more or less uniform annual, e.g. seasonal dynamics, with one or several sudden increase of population size (invasions). Such insects are mosquitoes. Short term increase of temperature during one or several years cause an increase in intensity and in overall size of populations through the years. Long term increase of temperature with positive trend during 15 year period caused an additional changes in population dynamics of this insect in the form of additional numbers of invasions despite the fact that the season is still equally long (because one limiting factor for mosquito populations is photoperiod). According to our results we can suppose that different quality of biomarker expression could be a significant marker of a long term temperature changes e.g. solid indicator of local climate changes.