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This meta-analysis synthesized the effects of the English medium instruction and content and language integrated learning (EMI-CLIL) approach on secondary-level students' English learning. The dataset included 44 samples (N = 7,434) from 38 primary studies. The results revealed EMI-CLIL's overall effectiveness for the development of English competence compared to the mainstream condition in the short term (d = 0.73, SE = 0.06, 95% CI [0.61, 0.86]) and longer term (d = 1.01, SE = 0.06, 95% CI [0.88, 1.15]). Additionally, we found that EMI-CLIL's overall effectiveness was influenced by several moderator variables. Its effectiveness was significantly: (1) higher for learners whose first language (L1) was linguistically related to English; (2) lower for primary studies which confirmed the homogeneity of the EMI-CLIL and comparison groups; (3) lower when studies targeted the productive (rather than receptive or overall) dimension of English learning; and (4) higher when outcome measures focused on vocabulary. Implications for pedagogy and future research are discussed.

This study examined the potential relationship among students’ test-taking strategies, language proficiency and performance through an eye-tracking experiment. 71 university students with different levels of English proficiency attempted carefully selected questions on their Biology knowledge. Their eye movement behavior was captured during the process and analyzed using both summary statistics of eye movement measures and gaze transition consistency as measured in entropy using Eye Movement analysis with Hidden Markov Models (EMHMM) to infer their test-taking strategies, which were then correlated with test performance measured in accuracy and reaction time. Results generally showed that eye movement behavior was associated with performance. In particular, gaze transition consistency predicted performance beyond summary statistics of eye movement measures. However, language proficiency was not associated with eye movement behavior or performance. These results may imply that participants’ moment-by-moment, flexible problem-solving strategies when taking the test would better predict their performance than their underlying language proficiency.

In content and language integrated learning (CLIL) classrooms, it is assumed that non-language content subjects provide more authentic communicative contexts for students to learn a foreign/second/additional language (L2). However, learning abstract concepts and academic language in an L2 simultaneously is also challenging for CLIL students. It is thus important for CLIL teachers to unpack and repack both abstract concepts and academic discourse for the students. 'Semantic waves', which model classroom practices of both unpacking and repacking, is arguably a key to understanding cumulative knowledge-building. Applying the concepts of semantic profiles and semantic waves, this paper analyses the classroom discourse of two CLIL science lessons in Hong Kong. In one lesson, the semantic profile mainly consists of downward shifts. The teacher adopted various useful strategies to unpack science concepts, especially with multimodalities, everyday L2 and students' L1 resources. Yet, there was limited repacking. In contrast, some repacking was observed in another lesson, where the teacher provided explicit instruction on academic language and guided students through academic writing tasks. A semantic wave can thus be observed there. These findings on strategies for unpacking and repacking provide significant insights into knowledge building in CLIL contexts, and may hence illuminate CLIL pedagogical practices.

Conducted in a Chinese university, this study tracked eight students' changes in their beliefs and practices of translanguaging when developing academic literacies throughout a 14-week English for Academic Purposes (EAP) course, where translanguaging pedagogy was systematically planned and implemented. Data were collected from classroom observation, students' writing drafts and assignments before, during and after the course, and pre- and post-interviews and informal dialogic communication with the students and the teacher. Findings showed that the students generally started with monolingual and language separation beliefs. Throughout the course, the teacher's demonstration and encouragement of strategic translanguaging had different impact on individual students' beliefs and practices of translanguaging, and three typical patterns emerged: (1) deepening understanding and developing more strategic practice of translanguaging in academic activities, (2) gradual shifting from monolingual to multilingual mind-set, and (3) conflicting beliefs and lack of strategic practice of translanguaging. In light of these findings, this article examines translanguaging pedagogy with a critical lens, highlighting the complex and dynamic interaction between students' preexisting beliefs and language ideologies and their responsiveness to teacher's pedagogy. It also discusses the potential roles translanguaging pedagogy could play in university students' learning of academic language and content.

In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) programmes, non-linguistic content is taught and assessed in an additional language. Hence, CLIL teachers, most of whom are content subject specialists, may encounter difficulties in evaluating students' content knowledge independent of their L2 proficiency and in aligning objectives, instruction and assessment. These concerns are closely related to teachers' assessment literacy, which is seen as integral to teachers' pedagogical content knowledge and plays a crucial role in effective instruction and assessment. While frameworks for teachers' assessment literacy exist, there have been calls to re-examine this important construct with reference to specific disciplinary contexts. Given the curricular complexities of CLIL, this paper seeks to conceptualise the assessment literacy of teachers in such programmes. It will first tease out the complexities of assessment in CLIL programmes. It will then review some relevant literature on teachers' assessment literacy, based on which a conceptual framework for CLIL teachers' assessment literacy is proposed. It will also include an illustrative case of how the framework could be applied in research. The framework will establish a theoretical grounding for future empirical research in the field and have important implications for CLIL teacher education.

In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) programmes, students learn content knowledge and a second/foreign language (L2) simultaneously. It follows that both content and language are assessed, although research on how to do so remains scarce. This study explores the interplay between cognitive and linguistic demands of CLIL assessments. Having analysed over 4900 questions in Science/Biology textbooks, workbooks and examination papers in Hong Kong, we observed that junior secondary assessments were dominated by low-level cognitive (i.e. recall of knowledge) and linguistic (i.e. no production or word-level production) demands, whereas senior secondary assessments required higher-order thinking skills (i.e. application and analysis of knowledge) expressed in sentences or even texts. Also, based on the analysis of 70 junior secondary students' performance in school examination papers, we noticed a potential hindrance of linguistic demands to students' performance in CLIL assessments. These findings together underscore the integral role of language in CLIL assessments and raise questions about the adequacy of existing pedagogical practices in preparing students to tackle both cognitive and linguistic demands in CLIL assessments, particularly when they proceed to higher grade levels where the demands in both dimensions leap. These have significant implications for CLIL assessment design, pedagogy and teacher education.

Content-based education programmes, in which a second/foreign language (L2) is used as the medium of instruction when teaching non-language content subjects, aim at both content and L2 learning. With such dual goal in mind, and with the rapid expansion of the programmes to contexts where students might have only basic L2 proficiency, there have been consistent calls for reconsidering the roles of first language (L1) in the teaching and learning process. The functions of L1 in content-based classrooms have been well documented, but it is necessary to have a more systematic approach to planning and using L1. This paper seeks to address this gap by applying the notions of 'curriculum genres' and 'task structure' when analysing patterns of teachers' use of L1 and L2 in a collection of content subject lessons observed in English-medium secondary schools in Hong Kong. With illustrative episodes presented in this paper, we would argue that 'curriculum genres' and 'task structure' can serve as useful tools for both researchers and teachers to analyse and critically reflect on patterns of pedagogic practices and language use in content-based classrooms. These will have significant implications for future research on using L1 and illuminate effective pedagogy in content-based education.

In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) programmes, students are expected to master content knowledge and language simultaneously. The worldwide popularity of this kind of programme has called for professional development, particularly for content subject teachers who have to shoulder some responsibilities of language teaching in CLIL. There have been several frameworks or proposals for professional development of CLIL teachers. Yet, empirical studies investigating the effectiveness of CLIL professional development programmes remain scarce. This gap is particularly important, since the relationship between professional development and teacher change is complicated and there are various factors affecting whether and how teacher would change. This study implemented a 6-month professional development programme for a group of content subject teachers in CLIL in Hong Kong. With data gathered with questionnaires, interviews, lesson observations and post-lesson reflections, this paper reports the trajectory of three case teachers who seemed to experience different degrees of changes in beliefs and language awareness. These differences could be explained by the influence of such factors as school context, learning experience and subject discipline. This study yields important implications for teacher education in CLIL and teacher change.

In English-medium instruction (EMI), students learn content knowledge through their additional language. Despite the implicit English learning goals, EMI content subject teachers have been urged to provide more language support for their students. Such expectations may not be something that EMI teachers were professionally prepared for. It is then worth examining how EMI teachers (re)construct their identity when facing such new expectations. Based on Wenger’s [Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge University Press] identity construction framework, this qualitative multiple case study reveals how three EMI teachers in Hong Kong and Mainland China secondary schools negotiated their identity when being supported to incorporate language teaching in their content lessons. From data collected in co-planning meetings, lesson observations and interviews, all the teachers were engaged in constructing the identity of language aware content teachers, but some of them appeared to experience identity conflicts. The contrast of the three cases reveals that teachers’ professional training, school context and curriculum requirement are important in shaping teachers’ professional identity. Teachers’ agency also impacts on how teachers negotiate their identity, especially when facing contextual constraints. These findings underscore the importance of preparing teachers both psychologically and practically in EMI teacher education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Abstract\nABSTRACT IN CHINESE\nPLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARYIn bilingual education programmes, teachers, particularly content subject teachers, play an important role in helping students master content knowledge and the target language simultaneously. In this regard, teachers’ language awareness, which will affect their pedagogical practices, is crucial. Collaboration between content subject and language teachers is argued to be effective in enhancing teachers’ language awareness and strategies of integrating content and language teaching. This study explored this by investigating 12 secondary schools in Hong Kong which implemented partial or full English Medium Instruction, with a specific focus on how cross-curricular collaboration was implemented, and whether this may have promoted teachers’ language awareness and practices. With questionnaires, interviews, classroom observations and artefacts, the study observed that teachers were generally aware of the difficulties students encountered when learning content subjects through English, and content subject teachers tended to recognise their roles of incorporating language teaching into content lessons. Such self-reported language awareness was corroborated by the various strategies integrating content and language teaching in the observed ­lessons. These findings demonstrate a cyclic relationship between cross-curricular collaboration and teachers’ language awareness – teachers’ language awareness is essential to make cross-curricular collaboration happen, and it is further reinforced after teachers collaborate with each other.在雙語教育課程中, 教師, 尤其是學科教師, 在幫助學生同時掌握學科知識和目標語言方面發揮著重要作用。在這方面, 教師的語文認知至關重要, 因為這將影響他們的教學實踐。學科老師與語文教師之間的跨學科協作被認為可以有效地提高教師的語文認知以及內容與語文結合的教學策略。本研究通過調查香港12所實施部分或全部英語授課的中學來探討它們如何實施跨學科協作, 以及這是否可以促進教師的語文認知和教學實踐。通過問卷調查、訪談、課堂觀察和收集學校文件, 本研究發現教師普遍意識到學生以英語學習學科時遇到的困難, 學科教師一般認同他們將語言教學融入學科課程的角色。這種自我報告的語文認知也展現在課程中整合內容和語言教學的各種策略。這些研究發現表明, 跨學科協作與教師語文認知之間存在相輔相成的關係, 換言之, 教師的語文認知有助推動跨學科協作, 並且在教師協作後會進一步加強。In bilingual education programmes, it is important for teachers to help students master content knowledge and the target language at the same time. In this aspect, teachers’ language awareness, which will affect their teaching practices, is crucial. Such awareness could be enhanced through collaboration between content subject and language teachers. This study explored this by looking into 12 secondary schools in Hong Kong which used English to teach some or all content subjects. We focused on how cross-curricular collaboration occurred, and whether this may have promoted teachers’ language awareness and practices. We found that teachers were generally aware of the difficulties students faced when learning content subjects through English, and content subject teachers tended to recognise their roles of integrating language teaching into content lessons. These findings are important because they show a close relationship between cross-­curricular collaboration and teachers’ language awareness. In other words, teachers’ language awareness is essential to make cross-­curricular collaboration happen, and it is further reinforced after teachers collaborate with each other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has considered the effects of content familiarity and task repetition on second language (L2) performance, but few studies have looked at the effect of these factors on learners' engagement in task performance. This study explores the influence of content familiarity and task repetition on English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' engagement in oral performance. Sixty EFL learners performed four narrative tasks with two familiar and two unfamiliar topics. They also repeated the same tasks to the same audience. Their oral production was analysed with various measures of behavioural and cognitive engagement. Stimulated recalls were collected from twenty-one participants to capture their emotional engagement. The participants were behaviourally and cognitively more engaged in tasks with familiar topics as well as having a more positive affective response to them. Repeating the tasks, however, negatively influenced behavioural and cognitive engagement, although the participants felt more relaxed and confident. In addition, the participants were more motivated to repeat unfamiliar topics, although they demonstrated more noticeable declines in their frequency of self-repair (an indicator of cognitive engagement) for these topics. These results provided empirical evidence for the relationship between task design and implementation factors and L2 task engagement. Teachers might base repetition decisions partially on learners' familiarity with the topic.

There has been a rich literature on the role of language in learning and on its role in knowledge (co-)construction in the science classroom. This literature, rooted in social semiotics theories and sociocultural theories, discussed research conducted largely in contexts where students are learning content in their first language (L1). In this paper, we draw on concepts from this literature to analyse science lessons in an L2 (second/foreign language) context and discuss how these concepts can be further built on and extended to understand the role of "languaging" and "translanguaging" in knowledge (co-)construction and academic language learning in CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) classrooms, where students are learning content in their L2.

Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) programs impose enormous demands on teachers, who are expected to integrate the two aspects pedagogically. Content and language teachers are thus encouraged to collaborate to help students master content knowledge and develop their additional language (L2) proficiency simultaneously. To reveal whether such teacher collaboration (TC) is beneficial, researchers have also attempted to examine its effectiveness on student learning. Situated in a Chinese tertiary classroom, this quasi-experimental study investigated how TC affected student learning by recruiting a content instructor, a language expert, and 50 students in two intact drama classes (n = 25 each). The impact of TC on student learning was captured by two character analyses written by the two groups of students before and after the intervention which lasted throughout the 13-week drama course. Results from inferential statistics and textual analysis showed that students in the experimental group improved their writing in both content and language aspects as compared to their peers in the control group. Such findings show that TC is conducive to student learning in CLIL and yield significant implications for CLIL pedagogy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the content knowledge of English language learners and immigrant students is assessed in their less proficient language, the validity and fairness of assessments related to those students have been widely discussed. However, such assessment issues have not received much attention in rapidly expanding bilingual education programmes, where students learn content subjects through a second/foreign/additional language (L2) and are often assessed in that language. This paper addresses this research gap by examining the mediating effect of language of testing on students' performance in content subject assessments. 387 question items in the Biology papers of a public examination in Hong Kong were analysed according to their cognitive and linguistic demands. The performance of 480 students (half taking the test in their first language and half in their L2) on the questions with different demands was then analysed with MANOVA and multiple regression. The results show that linguistic demands, especially productive linguistic demands (e.g. writing sentences and texts), had a more significant effect on the performance of students taking the test in their L2. These results underscore the role played by language in the academic achievement of bilingual education students, which in turn illuminate valid assessment design and pedagogy in these programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In content-based instruction (CBI) programmes, students learn content subjects through a second language (L2), so that they can incidentally learn the language. To further facilitate students' L2 development, the collaboration between L2 and content subject teachers has been strongly advocated. Previous research on such kind of collaboration mainly focused on how it may be realised, and on identifying potential obstacles, while its effectiveness remains under-explored. This paper reports the findings of a small-scale project conducted in a Hong Kong secondary school in which CBI is practised. Teachers of English, Integrated Humanities and Science collaborated in the design and teaching of several units for Grade 8 students. With data collected from teacher meetings, lesson observations, and students' performance on the pre- and post-tests, this study evaluated "whether" and "how" cross-curricular collaboration contributed to students' L2 learning. The findings show that students in classes where cross-curricular collaboration was practised demonstrated a better understanding of the targeted grammatical items. This could be attributed to enhanced teachers awareness of students' needs, a more suitable curriculum and changes in teachers' pedagogical foci in lessons. This study thus suggests the potentials of cross-curricular teacher collaboration and provides important implications for further enhancing the effectiveness of CBI.