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On the flanks of > 6000 m Andean volcanoes that tower over the Atacama Desert, leaf‐eared mice (Phyllotis vaccarum) live at extreme elevations that surpass known vegetation limits. The diet of these mice in these barren, hyperarid environments has been the subject of much speculation. According to the arthropod fallout hypothesis, sustenance is provided by windblown insects that accumulate in snowdrifts ("aolian deposits"). Mice may also feed on saxicolous lichen or forms of cryptic vegetation that have yet to be discovered at such high elevations. We tested hypotheses about the diet of mice living at extreme elevations on Atacama volcanoes by combining metagenomic and DNA metabarcoding analyses of gut contents with stable isotope analyses of mouse tissues. Genomic analyses of contents of the gastrointestinal tract of a live‐captured mouse from the summit of Volcán Llullaillaco (6739 m) revealed an opportunistic but purely herbivorous diet, including lichens. Although we found no evidence of animal DNA in gut contents of the summit mouse, stable isotope data indicate that mice from elevations at or near vegetation limits (~5100 m) include a larger fraction of animal prey in their diet than mice from lower elevations. Some plant species detected in the gut contents of the summit mouse are known to exist at lower elevations at the base of the volcano and in the surrounding Altiplano, suggesting that they may occur at higher elevations beneath the snowpack or in other cryptic microhabitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT On the flanks of > 6000 m Andean volcanoes that tower over the Atacama Desert, leaf‐eared mice (Phyllotis vaccarum) live at extreme elevations that surpass known vegetation limits. The diet of these mice in these barren, hyperarid environments has been the subject of much speculation. According to the arthropod fallout hypothesis, sustenance is provided by windblown insects that accumulate in snowdrifts (“aolian deposits”). Mice may also feed on saxicolous lichen or forms of cryptic vegetation that have yet to be discovered at such high elevations. We tested hypotheses about the diet of mice living at extreme elevations on Atacama volcanoes by combining metagenomic and DNA metabarcoding analyses of gut contents with stable isotope analyses of mouse tissues. Genomic analyses of contents of the gastrointestinal tract of a live‐captured mouse from the summit of Volcán Llullaillaco (6739 m) revealed an opportunistic but purely herbivorous diet, including lichens. Although we found no evidence of animal DNA in gut contents of the summit mouse, stable isotope data indicate that mice from elevations at or near vegetation limits (~5100 m) include a larger fraction of animal prey in their diet than mice from lower elevations. Some plant species detected in the gut contents of the summit mouse are known to exist at lower elevations at the base of the volcano and in the surrounding Altiplano, suggesting that they may occur at higher elevations beneath the snowpack or in other cryptic microhabitats.

The objective of this article is a comparative and functional analysis of the necklace that accompanies the clothing of the Maiden of Llullaillaco and the miniature pendants that hung from the two metallic tupus that close the acsu of the Maiden of Ampato. This multidisciplinary approach makes it possible to establish the importance of the ritual practices associated with the spheres of political and social power linked to these Capacochas. It also highlights how the materiality with which these objects were made could be related to the sacralization of its bearer, her protection, and social status.

Biologists have long pondered the extreme limits of life on Earth, including the maximum elevation at which species can live and reproduce. Here we review evidence of a self-sustaining population of mice at an elevation that exceeds that of all previously reported for mammals. Five expeditions over 10 years to Volcán Llullaillaco on the Argentina/Chile border observed and collected mice at elevations ranging from 5,070 m at the mountain's base to the summit at 6,739 m (22,110 feet). Previously unreported evidence includes observations and photographs of live animals and mummified remains, environmental DNA, and a soil microbial community reflecting animal activity that are evaluated in combination with previously reported video recordings and capture of live mice. All of the evidence identifies the mouse as the leaf-eared mouse Phyllotis vaccarum, and it robustly places the population within a haplotype group containing individuals from the Chilean Atacama Desert and nearby regions of Argentina. A critical review of the literature affirms that this population is not only an elevational record for mammals but for all terrestrial vertebrates to date, and we further find that many extreme elevations previously reported for mammals are based on scant or dubious evidence. Durante mucho tiempo los biólogos han reflexionado sobre los límites extremos de altura a la que las especies pueden vivir y reproducirse. Aquí presentamos nueva evidencia sobre la existencia de una población de ratones establecida a una elevación que supera todos los reports previos para mamíferos. Durante 10 años fueron realizadas 5 expediciones al Volcán Llullaillaco, ubicado en la frontera entre Argentina y Chile; observando y colectando ratones en elevaciones que van desde los 5,070 m hasta la cima de 6,739 m (22,110 feet). La nueva evidencia incluye fotografías de restos momificados, ADN ambiental y la actividad microbiana del suelo que confirman la presencia del animal, la cual fue analizada junto a videos reportados anteriormente y la captura de ejemplares vivos. Toda esta información indica que dicha población corresponde al ratón orejudo amarillento Phyllotis vaccarum y lo posicionan dentro de un grupo de haplotipos compuesto por individuos del Desierto de Atacama y regiones cercanas en Argentina. La revisión crítica de la literatura demostró que esta población no solo es un récord de elevación para los mamíferos, sino para todos los vertebrados terrestres; igualmente, que los reportes de elevaciones extremas reportados para mamíferos se derivan de evidencias escasas y dudosas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On the flanks of >6000 m Andean volcanoes that tower over the Atacama Desert, leaf-eared mice ( Phyllotis vaccarum ) live at extreme elevations that surpass known vegetation limits. What the mice eat in these barren, hyperarid environments has been the subject of much speculation. According to the arthropod fallout hypothesis, sustenance is provided by windblown insects that accumulate in snowdrifts ('aolian deposits'). It is also possible that mice feed on saxicolous lichen or forms of cryptic vegetation that have yet to be discovered at such high elevations. We tested hypotheses about the diet of mice living at extreme elevations on Atacama volcanoes by combining metagenomic and DNA metabarcoding analyses of gut contents with stable-isotope analyses of mouse tissues. Genomic analyses of contents of the gastrointestinal tract of a live-captured mouse from the 6739 m summit of Volcán Llullaillaco revealed evidence for an opportunistic but purely herbivorous diet, including lichens. Although we found no evidence of animal DNA in gut contents of the summit mouse, stable isotope data indicate that mice native to elevations at or near vegetation limits (~5100 m) include a larger fraction of animal prey in their diet than mice from lower elevations. Some plant species detected in the gut contents of the summit mouse are known to exist at lower elevations at the base of the volcano and in the surrounding Altiplano, suggesting that such plants may occur at higher elevations beneath the snowpack or in other cryptic microhabitats.

Here, we review the current state of knowledge concerning high-elevation members of the extremophilic Cryptococcus albidus clade (now classified as the genus Naganishia). These fungi dominate eukaryotic microbial communities across the highest elevation, soil-like material (tephra) on volcanoes such as Llullaillaco, Socompa, and Saírecabur in the Atacama region of Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia. Recent studies indicate that Naganishia species are among the most resistant organisms to UV radiation, and a strain of N. friedmannii from Volcán Llullaillaco is the first organism that is known to grow during the extreme, diurnal freeze-thaw cycles that occur on a continuous basis at elevations above 6000 m.a.s.l. in the Atacama region. These and other extremophilic traits discussed in this review may serve a dual purpose of allowing Naganishia species to survive long-distance transport through the atmosphere and to survive the extreme conditions found at high elevations. Current evidence indicates that there are frequent dispersal events between high-elevation volcanoes of Atacama region and the Dry Valleys of Antarctica via “Rossby Wave” merging of the polar and sub-tropical jet streams. This dispersal hypothesis needs further verification, as does the hypothesis that Naganishia species are flexible “opportunitrophs” that can grow during rare periods of water (from melting snow) and nutrient availability (from Aeolian inputs) in one of the most extreme terrestrial habitats on Earth.

We conducted a study of the distribution of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic inca figurines found in the tombs of three human bodies, at 6715 meters above sea level in the Llullaillaco (Salta-Argentina) volcano. These offerings were buried in an Inca ritual known as capacocha, by which were sealed and maintained partnerships between aboriginal communities and the state. The results of our study show a differential distribution between the bodies and anthropomorphic figurines, forming groups segregated without spatial relationship. This corroborates the ethnohistorical and archaeological information about the importance of figurines offered on many occasions without accompanying human remains. Finally, the distribution raises uncertainties as to the sequence of deposition of the offerings of the Llullaillaco volcano, suggesting the synchronicity of burials or a relatively short time between them.

Here, we review the current state of knowledge concerning high-elevation members of the extremophilic Cryptococcus albidus clade (now classified as the genus Naganishia). These fungi dominate eukaryotic microbial communities across the highest elevation, soil-like material (tephra) on volcanoes such as Llullaillaco, Socompa, and Saírecabur in the Atacama region of Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia. Recent studies indicate that Naganishia species are among the most resistant organisms to UV radiation, and a strain of N. friedmannii from Volcán Llullaillaco is the first organism that is known to grow during the extreme, diurnal freeze-thaw cycles that occur on a continuous basis at elevations above 6000 m.a.s.l. in the Atacama region. These and other extremophilic traits discussed in this review may serve a dual purpose of allowing Naganishia species to survive long-distance transport through the atmosphere and to survive the extreme conditions found at high elevations. Current evidence indicates that there are frequent dispersal events between high-elevation volcanoes of Atacama region and the Dry Valleys of Antarctica via "Rossby Wave" merging of the polar and sub-tropical jet streams. This dispersal hypothesis needs further verification, as does the hypothesis that Naganishia species are flexible "opportunitrophs" that can grow during rare periods of water (from melting snow) and nutrient availability (from Aeolian inputs) in one of the most extreme terrestrial habitats on Earth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

En este escrito se expone una clasificación de 15 miniaturas zoomorfas inkas de metal y Spondylus, basada en formas y técnicas de manufactura desarrollando también una interpretación del significado de materiales, de asociaciones cardinales y de objetos del contexto funerario recuperado en 1999 de la cima del volcán Llullaillaco (6.739 msnm, Provincia de Salta, Argentina). Se busca aportar a la arqueología de montaña con una perspectiva de inclusión de contenidos mentales extra-políticos, basándose en la premisa de que el ritual remite, en primera instancia, a la práctica cotidiana que resulta de las condiciones sociales y materiales de existencia. Identificando ese sustrato primigenio, se intenta cambiar el eje de atención desde la predominancia cusqueña hacia el interés por la vida vernácula y sus prácticas dentro de lo que tradicionalmente se considera un ritual de exclusiva injerencia estatal en el marco de una "férrea" e intransigente dominación política.This paper presents a classification of 15 zoomorphic Inka figurines made of metal and Spondylus, based on the forms and techniques used in their manufacture, followed by an interpretation of the significance of the materials used, their orientation and association with funerary objects recovered on the summit of Llullaillaco Volcano (6739 ma.s.l. Salta Province, Argentina) in 1999. The paper is intended to contribute to mountain archaeology by examining the extra-political mental content of the artifacts, based on the premise that the ritual refers to the social and material conditions of existence, expressed in daily life. By identifying this primary underlayer, we seek to shift the central focus of mountain archaeology from the Cusco Empire to the vernacular sphere and its practices, expressed in a ritual under the exclusive purview of the State and its unyielding political domination.

Soils above 6000 m.a.s.l. are among the most extreme environments on Earth, especially on high, dry volcanoes where soil temperatures cycle between −10 and 30 °C on a typical summer day. Previous studies have shown that such sites are dominated by yeast in the cryophilic Cryptococcus group, but it is unclear if they can actually grow (or are just surviving) under extreme freeze-thaw conditions. We carried out a series of experiments to determine if Cryptococcus could grow during freeze-thaw cycles similar to those measured under field conditions. We found that Cryptococcus phylotypes increased in relative abundance in soils subjected to 48 days of freeze-thaw cycles, becoming the dominant organisms in the soil. In addition, pure cultures of Cryptococcus isolated from these same soils were able to grow in liquid cultures subjected to daily freeze-thaw cycles, despite the fact that the culture medium froze solid every night. Furthermore, we showed that this organism is metabolically versatile and phylogenetically almost identical to strains from Antarctic Dry Valley soils. Taken together these results indicate that this organism has unique metabolic and temperature adaptations that make it able to thrive in one of the harshest and climatically volatile places on Earth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In March 1999 there was one of the most important discoveries in the field of high mountain archeology: the discovery of three bodies of Inca children with high degree of conservation preservation. The bodies were found covered by a layer composed of rock and ice at the top of the volcano Llullaillaco located in the province of Salta at more than 6700 m above sea level. Currently the mummies are in the Museum of High Mountain Archeology in Salta and one of the main tasks being carried out is to establish optimal conditions for their preservation. To this end it is important to determine the physical and chemical phenomena that have occurred, occur and may occur in the bodies of the Children of Llullaillaco. In this work we developed a mathematical model that describes the processes of heat and mass transfer in bodies for the different stages and conditions to which these mummies have been exposed. The numerical resolution of the models allowed understand and interpret the physical dynamics in these bodies, with the ultimate goal of visualize and establish preservation policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Archibarca lineament is one of several NW–SE-trending transverse lineaments that cut across the Central Andes of Argentina and Chile. Central Andean, Late Miocene–Quaternary subduction-related volcanism is mainly restricted to a ∼50-km-wide arc forming the approximately N–S axis of the Cordillera, but extends along the transverse lineaments for up to 200 km to the SE. Lineaments are interpreted to be deep-seated, long-lived basement structures or anisotropies, which can control the localization of magmatism and, in some cases, magmatic–hydrothermal ore deposits (e.g., the Escondida porphyry Cu deposit, Chile). As a first step towards exploring the regional-scale controls on magmatism and related mineralization exerted by such structures, the styles of volcanism and near-surface hydrothermal activity along a segment of the Archibarca lineament in the Puna of northwest Argentina are described here. Volcanic structures have been mapped and sampled along a 50-km transect from Cerro Llullaillaco, a large medium-K dacitic Quaternary stratovolcano, to Corrida de Cori, a range of Pliocene–Pleistocene high-K andesitic vents. Apart from a southeastward increase in K content and the predominance of dacitic lavas at Cerro Llullaillaco, the geochemical affinity of late Cenozoic volcanic rocks varies little in time or space. This uniformity extends further SE to Cerro Gala´n, where published data closely match the results from the study area. In detail, trace element compositions reveal the localized (in both time and space) effects of crustal contamination (recognized as Th>10 ppm), and depth of fractionation (1/Yb>0.7 ppm−1, reflecting garnet residue). Explosive volcanic rocks such as ignimbrites show the strongest indications of crustal contamination, whereas the Cerro Llullaillaco dacite lavas mostly record significant garnet fractionation. Other lavas from the Llullaillaco area, including one flow from Cerro Llullaillaco, do not show garnet control, suggesting that different batches of magma stalled and fractionated at different levels in a thick (∼60-km) crust prior to eruption. The youngest volcanism in the Corrida de Cori area is represented by olivine–phyric basaltic andesite cinder cones and flows. The ascent of these relatively primitive magmas appears to have been controlled by late Quaternary normal faults, which directly tapped deeply derived melts. The Corrida de Cori volcanic range has experienced intense fumarolic alteration with deposition of abundant sulfate and native sulfur (previously mined at Mina Julia). Deeper levels of hydrothermal alteration have been sampled by an ignimbrite erupted from Cerro Escorial, which, among other lithic clasts, contains numerous fragments of vein quartz. Fluid inclusions in this quartz record evidence for a boiling, high-salinity fluid, which may represent a link between a high temperature magmatic–hydrothermal system at depth (i.e., a porphyry-type system) and shallow-level fumarolic activity. An ignimbrite erupted from Cerro Escorial preserves textures such as internal wave forms between flow units and surface wave morphologies at its distal limits that indicate flow as a series of dense turbulent pulses, which interdigitated and interfered with one another. Lithic lag breccias occur near the base of the flow proximal to the vent, but no air-fall deposits are preserved, probably due to transport of ash far from the vent by strong, high-altitude winds. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]