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The effectiveness of a behavior intervention package depends heavily on the ability of authentic educators to implement procedures with fidelity. However, much of the training literature focuses on teaching educators to implement procedures with relatively few components (Kirkpatrick Journal of Behavioral Education 28(3): 344-361, 2019). We used a multiple probe across participants design to evaluate the effects of intensive coaching on educator fidelity of a comprehensive, function-based intervention package (skill-based treatment; Hanley Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 47(1): 16-36, 2014) for three public school staff members with no previous training in applied behavior analysis. Relative to a workshop-style behavioral skills training session, intensive coaching increased educators' fidelity to criterion levels. Criterion fidelity in one or both major intervention intervals generalized from implementation with an actor to implementation with a target student, and subsequently to implementation with the student in his regularly assigned classroom. Staff reported the training package to be feasible and the intervention to be effective for improving their student's behavior.

Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is an evidence-based framework for promoting positive school climates and improving student social and behavioral outcomes. Yet secondary schools have lagged behind elementary schools in their adoption and implementation of PBIS. The transition from elementary to middle school is marked by a host of developmental and environmental changes that creates a critical window for establishing supportive school environments. We conducted a series of focus groups with middle school students (N = 45) attending PBIS schools to learn about their views and understandings of PBIS, the perceived impact of these programs, the extent to which they were involved in PBIS, and their recommendations for improving their school's program. Although middle school students' understanding of PBIS was often focused on their acknowledgment system, students identified a range of impacts beyond improving student behavior. Students also expressed a desire for more (a) transparent communication between staff and students and (b) opportunities for students to be actively involved in their school's program. We discuss the implications of these findings with respect to increasing the uptake and impact of PBIS in secondary schools.

Although the number of U.S. schools implementing multitiered systems of support for behavior (MTSS-B) continues to grow, most schools have still not adopted these evidence-based frameworks. We examined the views of educators (N = 561) at the outset of adopting MTSS-B in their schools or districts. Our survey addressed the (a) reasons schools and districts decided to adopt MTSS-B, (b) challenges they anticipated with respect to implementation, and (c) expected outcomes of MTSS-B. We also compared views across three groups of stakeholders: local school team members, building administrators, and district representatives. Although most participants reported multiple motivations for adopting MTSS-B, concerns about student behavior and the need for staff support in this area were among the primary reasons. Anticipated challenges varied by group, with district representatives affirming those challenges most strongly. Responses also suggest these stakeholders have high expectations regarding the impact of MTSS-B in their school or district. We discuss implications for technical assistance providers related to supporting a more widespread adoption of MTSS-B.

Functional communication training (FCT) is an evidence-based intervention that while often effective, can result in rote responding, reduced generalizability of target behavior, and resurgence of challenging behavior (CB) during treatment lapses. Lag schedules of reinforcement have been successfully used to address these concerns. We applied an increasing lag schedule within FCT to increase the variability and persistence of appropriate responding of four young children with disabilities while maintaining low levels of CB during treatment. Our results provide evidence regarding the effects of lag reinforcement on appropriate communication and CB during treatment and lapses in treatment with children with autism and Down syndrome. This research provides a new perspective to the field given, we assessed functional communication during baseline, assessed generalization to new contexts, and assessed social validity via both masked raters and participants' mothers. We discuss the implications of this work and provide future directions for researcher and practice.

Although functional analysis is a powerful tool for testing the function of challenging behavior, it is not always feasible or appropriate to include as a component of functional behavior assessment (FBA). Alternative experimental analysis methods are needed to inform individualized interventions in schools, particularly for students who engage in passive forms of problem behavior. We evaluated a concurrent operant analysis (COA) framework to identify reinforcers for appropriate replacement behaviors for four students referred for FBA and reported by teachers to engage in low levels of work completion. After completing two COAs per student (researcher-as-therapist and teacher-as-therapist), we used alternating treatments designs to compare the effects of an intervention matched with COA outcomes to intervention conditions that were not matched to COA outcomes on levels of work completion and task engagement. COA outcomes corresponded across therapists for three of four participants and intervention results validated COA outcomes for two of these participants. Although results of this initial investigation seem promising, more research on COA frameworks is needed to determine their utility to guide reinforcement-based interventions in schools. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED594806.]

To evaluate effects of psychotropic medication for children with disabilities, direct assessments may offer a valuable supplement to caregiver reports. Relative to indirect assessment, direct measures of behavior can increase objectivity and sensitivity, and some have potential to isolate distinct behavioral and learning processes. We conducted a systematic, narrative literature review to identify and describe the types and qualities of direct assessment methods that have been used to evaluate effects of non-stimulant psychotropic medication for children with disabilities. We identified 50 studies and 78 direct assessments, which we organized and described using seven assessment categories. Only one study met all three direct assessment quality indicators. We use our descriptive results to highlight research trends and gaps that warrant further study.

The purpose of the current study was to explore the scientific utility of two behavior analytic assessments (i.e., progressive ratio and demand assessments) for psychotropic medication evaluation. For a sample of 23 children with disabilities who were prescribed medication, we conducted a series of generalizability and optimization studies to identify sources of score variance and conditions in which stable estimates of behavior can be obtained. To inform construct validity, we calculated correlations between scores from each assessment and those from a standardized behavior rating scale (Aberrant Behavior Checklist-Second Edition; ABC-2). Results offer initial support for the scientific utility of progressive ratio scores. More research is needed to evaluate sensitivity to change and construct validity of scores from these and other behavior analytic assessments.

When results of descriptive functional behavior assessments (FBAs) are inconclusive, experimental analysis methods can be used to directly test hypotheses about when or why a student engages in challenging behavior. Despite growing research on practical variations of hypothesis testing in schools, these methods are rarely incorporated in FBAs in practice. To inform practitioner perspectives on hypothesis testing as a component of FBAs, we surveyed a statewide sample of school practitioners who participate in the FBA process (n = 253). The survey addressed their views on three hypothesis testing strategies (i.e., functional analysis, antecedent analysis, concurrent operant analysis) across several dimensions. On 5-point Likert type scales, participants rated acceptability of procedures, feasibility of implementation, utility of results, conditions in which they would likely use or recommend the strategy, and perceived barriers. We used descriptive and nonparametric statistical analyses to compare ratings among the three hypothesis testing strategies. The majority of participants rated all three strategies favorably with respect to utility. However, ratings on acceptability, feasibility, and barriers were differentiated and favored the concurrent operant analysis over the functional and antecedent analyses. We discuss implications for practice and future research on incorporating hypothesis testing in FBAs for students with persistent challenging behavior. [For corresponding grantee submission, see ED606565.]

In elementary school classrooms, students commonly recruit teacher attention at inappropriately high rates or at inappropriate times. Multiple schedule interventions have been used to teach stimulus control by signaling to students when reinforcement is and is not available contingent on an appropriate response. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effects of a class-wide multiple schedule on differentiated rates of student recruitment of teacher attention in two public elementary classrooms. General education teachers implemented the multiple schedule intervention in the context of a common instructional routine (i.e., small group rotations among reading centers). Results indicated that the multiple schedule intervention was effective at decreasing disruptive bids for attention when teacher attention was not available. Additional research on teacher implementation of class-wide multiple schedules is needed to evaluate whether this intervention may be identified as an effective supplement to Tier 1 classroom management strategies within multi-tiered systems of support.

This article reports on a study that examined whether vocabulary flashcards facilitate spelling acquisition. The study was designed to evaluate whether students who are blind can learn to spell words accurately and incidentally when academic vocabulary instruction is used. Auditory information was provided prior to the introduction of a flashcard, simplifying the working memory load and making the adapted procedure more efficient. The study addressed the research questions: Are flashcards paired with auditory instruction effective for teaching the meanings of words to students who read braille? Can students who read braille learn to spell words accurately and incidentally when flashcard vocabulary instruction is used? The study showed that using flashcards to teach new word meanings can be effective.

Progressive delay training (PDT) has been used to promote self-controlled choices (i.e., selecting a larger, later reward over a smaller, immediate reward) for people with a variety of developmental characteristics. However, the efficacy of PDT has not been evaluated in children with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD), who often have co-occurring symptoms of impulsivity. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of PDT with a rule-following requirement on the impulsive choices of 6 elementary students with EBD using a modified changing criterion design. Results indicated that PDT alone did not improve self-control, but a modified version of PDT with a rationale and rule for selecting the delayed reward promoted self-control for 3 participants. The remaining 3 participants continued to make impulsive choices despite further modifications to the PDT protocol. We discuss implications of our results and directions for future research on treating impulsivity in children with EBD.

We reviewed the literature on function-based interventions (FBIs) implemented by school personnel in K-8 general education settings with a focus on intervention implementation. We identified 34 studies (70 students and FBIs) that met criteria for this review. For more than half of studies and participants, FBIs were implemented by general education teachers, delivered to male students in grades K-5, and involved both antecedent- and consequence-based strategies. Intervention fidelity was measured in 20 studies (59%). Teacher-training procedures were described in only 14 studies (41%), and researcher implementation fidelity of the teacher-training procedures was not measured in any studies. Application of Council for Exceptional Children quality indicators led to an evidence-based classification of "insufficient evidence" due to no studies meeting 100% of the quality indicators. However, 8 studies met greater than 75% of the quality indicators and established at least 1 functional relation between a teacher-implemented FBI and student challenging behavior.

School-home communication is highly valued for parents of students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and other developmental disabilities. However, parents report poor communication as a common barrier to developing partnerships with schools. Using a multiple baseline design, we evaluated the effects of a school-home note intervention with parent implemented reinforcement for decreasing off-task behavior of students with ASD at school. We also evaluated social validity (i.e., feasibility and acceptability) of the intervention and outcomes. Only two of the four participants showed clear behavior change, which precluded the demonstration of functional relations. However, all participating parents and teachers reported the school-home note and parent-implemented contingent reinforcement were highly feasible and acceptable, and indicated positive outcomes relating to improved family-school partnership and communication. Findings of this study, which meets single-case design standards and quality indicators, are discussed in terms of future research and practice.

The Peacock Hill Working Group (PHWG) published a seminal position article nearly 30 years ago on the state of the field of special education for children with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). They concluded their discussion with a set of recommendations for practice, policy, and research. The purpose of the present article is to revisit the PHWG's calls to the field with an emphasis on setting a research agenda related to children and youth with EBD. As a follow-up to the problems and promises identified by the PHWG, we identify progress and priorities for each of their six calls for research to improve outcomes for students with EBD. We address the broader context underlying each recommendation and how it has changed over time, describe research progress to date, and identify priorities to move the field forward. The overarching goal of this article is to inform and help shape the next phase of research on EBD, which in turn will advance the implementation and scale-up of effective programs and practices to better meet the needs of students with EBD in schools.

Low-income, minority families are underrepresented in the literature on parent training for school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Although the use of visual supports, such as visual schedules, is considered to be an evidence-based practice for children with ASD in school, it is not known whether this strategy is effective for minority, low-income families when implemented by the parent in the home setting. This study used a multiple-baseline across routines design replicated across two African American child-mother dyads to examine the effects of a parent-implemented visual schedule procedure on child independent schedule use and between-activity transitions. Parent participants were trained to implement a visual schedule intervention during home routines. Although a functional relation was demonstrated across routines for one mother-child dyad, results varied across participants, highlighting the importance of treatment fidelity. Implications for future research, including the challenges involved in parent-implemented interventions in low-income settings for minority children with ASD, are addressed.

Interdisciplinary collaboration is critical to address the multiple and varied needs of students with social/emotional and behavioral (SEB) challenges. Yet little is known about the nature of collaboration between two specialist groups who commonly support them: behavior analysts and mental health specialists. Considering expectations for collaboration, and the potential challenges unique to this partnership, we conducted a series of interviews in the U.S. state of Tennessee to explore these specialists' experiences and perspectives around collaboration. We used a qualitative description approach, which led to identifying themes related to (a) specialists' preparation to collaborate, (b) facilitators and barriers to effective collaboration, and (c) supports needed to collaborate more effectively in their current roles. Specialists from both groups felt their pre-service training inadequately prepared them to collaborate with one another. They identified several factors that impacted their ability to meaningfully collaborate and expressed needs for cross-discipline education, collaborative conversations, and training on "soft skills" to partner more effectively. We highlight distinct and overlapping perspectives within and across themes between behavior analysts and mental health specialists and discuss implications for improving the quality of these important partnerships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Functional communication training (FCT) in the treatment of escape‐maintained problem behavior for children with disabilities often includes extinction for problem behavior, which is difficult for educators to implement in classroom settings. This study evaluated the effects of FCT with concurrent schedules, as an alternative to extinction, for two children with disabilities and multiply maintained problem behavior including escape functions. FCT with concurrent schedules reduced problem behavior for one participant and increased mands for both participants. The mixed effects across participants and behaviors may inform boundary conditions for FCT with concurrent schedules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inclusive education is now advocated as best practice in schools. However, the extent to which adolescents with severe disabilities access the abundant social and academic experiences available in general education classes remains uncertain. We conducted multiple observations of 146 U.S. high school students with severe disabilities (including intellectual disability, autism, or multiple disabilities), who were enrolled in at least one general education class. Peer interactions with classmates tended to be very infrequent for most students with severe disabilities. Moreover, rates of peer interaction were the lowest during large-group instruction and when students were sitting next to paraprofessionals or special educators rather than with their peers. Academic engagement also varied across students and was highest during small-group instruction, during 1-on-1 work with adults, and when students sat near their peers. Observations of a comparison sample of peers attending these same classes revealed striking overall differences in social and academic participation. We offer recommendations for research and practice aimed at bolstering inclusive education in high schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When results of descriptive functional behavior assessments are unclear, hypothesis testing can help school teams understand how the classroom environment affects a student's challenging behavior. This article describes two hypothesis testing strategies that can be used in classroom settings: structural analysis and functional analysis. For each strategy, we (a) review relevant examples from the literature, (b) identify advantages and disadvantages, and (c) offer recommendations for when and how to use them.

As interest in proactive and systematic approaches to supporting positive student behavior grows, important questions remain about the ways in which special education staff and their students participate in school-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS). We report findings from a statewide study of 849 special educators addressing (a) their involvement in their school's PBIS framework, (b) the ways their students with disabilities participate, (c) potential barriers to such participation, and (d) the topics and avenues through which they desire professional development. Special educators rarely participated in school-wide PBIS teams, reported variability in the extent to which their students with disabilities participated in aspects of the school's framework, indicated that they implemented some features of the framework in their classroom more than others, and highlighted salient barriers to student involvement. The views and actions of special educators working primarily with students with low-incidence disabilities differed from those of teachers working with students with high-incidence disabilities. We discuss implications for research and practice aimed at enhancing the implementation and impact of school-wide PBIS on students with disabilities.

The use of functional behavior assessments (FBAs) to address problem behavior in classroom settings has increased as a result of education legislation and long-standing evidence supporting function-based interventions. Although functional analysis remains the standard for identifying behavior--environment functional relations, this component is rarely included in FBAs in practice. To address this research-to-practice gap, we searched the FBA literature to identify studies including functional analyses (FAs) conducted in students' usual classrooms and implemented by school personnel in public school settings. FAs were defined broadly as assessments involving systematic manipulation of one or more antecedent or consequent variable to evaluate environmental influences on student problem behavior. We identified 39 studies including FAs for 88 participants. All studies were coded with regard to FA approaches and procedures as well as student, classroom, and implementer characteristics. In addition, we evaluated the extent to which FA methods in the study sample aligned with previous recommendations to address practical barriers to implementation. Results revealed a range of FA approaches that varied according to student and classroom characteristics, as well as several strategies to address implementation barriers that have been under-utilized in classroom-based FAs to date.

The prevalence of psychotropic medication use among students with emotional and behavioral challenges continues to increase as intensive behavioral interventions are designed and evaluated in schools. There is general consensus among clinical professionals that psychotropic medications are not "silver bullets" but should be expected to improve mental health outcomes and enhance the effects of academic and behavioral interventions. Thus, they should be used to supplement, not replace, classroom-based strategies. Unfortunately, effective collaboration between clinical and educational professionals to evaluate medication effects is rare. As a result, psychopharmacological and behavioral interventions often occur simultaneously but are implemented and monitored independently by separate teams of professionals. In the present article, we make a case that a better understanding of behavioral mechanisms of psychotropic drug effects has the potential to improve the integration and evaluation of psychotropic and intensive behavioral interventions for students with emotional and behavioral challenges in schools. First, we review behavior-analytic approaches to intensive intervention models and current use patterns in psychotropic medications for students with emotional and behavioral challenges. Second, we review potential behavioral mechanisms of drug action as a framework for integrating the two treatment models. Third, we discuss implications of this integrated framework for practitioners when implementing and evaluating intensive, integrated interventions in schools.

The association made between the meaning, spelling, and pronunciation of a word has been shown to help children remember the meanings of words. The present study addressed whether the presence of a target word in Braille during instruction facilitated vocabulary learning more efficiently than an auditory-only instructional condition. The authors used an adapted alternating treatments single-case experimental design with three students with visual impairments who read Braille, collecting data on definition recall and spelling during each session. Data on definition recall were used to determine mastery. The results of this study are not consistent with previous findings with students who read print. Visual analyses of the data indicated that participants reached mastery in both conditions, but all three reached mastery on definition recall in fewer sessions in the auditory-only condition. Spellings of words were learned in the flashcard condition only, and possible implications of this are discussed. The difference in the unit of recognition and working memory load between reading Braille and reading print is discussed as one possible explanation.

Although functional analysis (FA) remains the standard for identifying the function of problem behavior for students with developmental disabilities, traditional FA procedures are typically costly in terms of time, resources, and perceived risks. Preliminary research suggests that trial-based FA may be a less costly alternative. The purpose of this study was to add to the burgeoning evidence on trial-based FA. Working with students with disabilities, school-based paraprofessionals conducted trial-based FAs for four students with developmental disabilities emitting high-frequency problem behavior. We then conducted brief contingency reversals to assess validity of hypotheses derived from the trial-based FA. Results of the present study add to the small but growing evidence base validating the trial-based FA as a practical and flexible alternative to the standard FA in school settings.

Attaining reliable estimates of observational measures can be challenging in school and classroom settings, as behavior can be influenced by multiple contextual factors. Generalizability (G) studies can enable researchers to estimate the reliability of observational data, and decision (D) studies can inform how many observation sessions are necessary to achieve a criterion level of reliability. We conducted G and D studies using observational data from a randomized control trial focusing on social and academic participation of students with severe disabilities in inclusive secondary classrooms. Results highlight the importance of anchoring observational decisions to reliability estimates from existing or pilot data sets. We outline steps for conducting G and D studies and address options when reliability estimates are lower than desired.

The trial-based functional analysis (FA) is a useful alternative to the traditional FA in contexts in which it is challenging to establish environmental control for extended periods of time. Previous researchers have demonstrated that others can be trained to conduct trial-based FAs with high procedural fidelity by providing a didactic presentation, small group instruction, and then a performance evaluation. However, one barrier to replicating this training sequence is that didactic presentations are not standardized and presentations can vary considerably across different groups of trainers or researchers. We designed an automated didactic presentation with video models embedded throughout for trainers and researchers to use when training others to conduct trial-based FAs. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of this presentation on participant fidelity to trial-based FA procedures. Results demonstrate improved fidelity following the presentation. However, the presentation alone was insufficient to establish consistently high levels of fidelity across all conditions for all participants. Thus, additional training components are required when teaching others to conduct trial-based FAs.