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Background Since 1961, global per capita fish consumption has nearly doubled. Much of the increase has been due to aquaculture. Bangladesh, the world's eighth largest fish producing country, has been part of this transformation. Despite having vitamin A supplementation and fortification programs, the prevalence of inadequate vitamin A intake (IVAI) in Bangladesh is very high, estimated to be 60%. The promotion of a small indigenous fish, high in vitamin A – mola carplet – offers a promising food-based approach to improving vitamin A status of the 98% of Bangladeshis who eat fish. The objective of this paper was to conduct a benefit–cost analysis of a national household pond Mola Promotion Program (MPP) in Bangladesh. Methods Using the 2005 Bangladesh Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) and nutrition and health statistics, we developed baseline estimates of usual vitamin A intake, the prevalence of IVAI and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) attributable to vitamin A deficiency (VAD). Drawing on a WorldFish project and HIES data, we designed and modeled the implementation of a MPP, and calculated the additional vitamin A intake it would provide, calculated new incidence rates of VAD-related health outcomes and estimated MPP-attributable annual changes in DALYs. The MPP's total health benefits were calculated over the program's 11-year phase-in as the annual sum of DALYs saved. The MPP's costs were estimated as the sum of the costs of a small fish program of the Fisheries Development Program plus the costs of mola brood stock, other inputs and additional farmer training-related costs. Program costs and benefits were combined to produce estimates of the cost-effectiveness of the program. Results An 11-year, $23 million project would increase average daily vitamin A intakes by 7 μg retinol activity equivalent (RAE), reduce the prevalence of IVAI by 1.1 percentage points, and save 3000 lives and 100,000 DALYs, at a cost of $194 per DALY saved. The MPP's impact would be concentrated among homestead pond-fishing households that would consume 60% of the additional mola produced. Among these, it would reduce IVAI prevalence by 7 percentage points. If the MPP was implemented for at least 20 years, it would dominate – have higher health benefits and lower total costs – than a national vitamin A wheat flour fortification program. Conclusion By World Bank and World Health Organization criteria, the MPP is a cost-effective approach to reduce the burden of micronutrient malnutrition in Bangladesh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction Biofortification is the breeding of new varieties of staple foods for increased micronutrient content. It is seen primarily as a complementary, rural-targeted strategy for better reaching remote populations. This paper presents an ex ante analysis of HarvestPlus’ provitamin A maize (PVAM) in Zambia and highlights an empirical approach based on the Zambian 2005/06 Living Conditions Monitoring Survey (LCMS). Because more than 115 countries regularly conduct a Household Consumption and Expenditure Survey (HCES), the approach developed in this LCMS-based study can be applied in many other countries to analyze varietal adoption and conduct ex ante studies. Methods Data from the LCMS and health statistics were used to characterize baseline indicators of vitamin A intake and Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) lost. The introduction and scaling up of PVAM was modeled based on program plans, expert opinion and data on key adoption parameters. An adoption function was specified and expressed in terms of the percent of farmers expected to adopt PVAM over the next 30 years. A logistic regression adoption function was estimated and used to identify the specific LCMS households adopting, producing and consuming PVAM each year. Information from the IFPRI International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) of yearly maize production and demand were used to produce annual estimates of PVAM planted, harvested and consumed. Taking into account an LCMS-empirically-informed, specified market structure, individuals’ additional vitamin A intake was calculated. The number of DALYs saved were estimated using the change in vitamin A intake. Combining these estimates with cost data, the cost-effectiveness of PVAM was calculated. Results Assuming an adoption ceiling of 20% over 30 years, implementation of PVAM will result in average additional intake of 12% of the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), a 3 percentage point reduction in the prevalence of inadequate intake, and savings of 23% of total DALYs. Impacts are concentrated among farming households that have adopted PVAM and consume it from their own production. Their consumption will result in an average additional vitamin A intake of 172 μg/day, more than 3 times the additional 54 μg/day among the entire population. Among this group, the reduction in the prevalence of inadequate intake will be more than 5 times the national average (17.5 percentage points). Valuing a DALY at $1000, PVAM’s cumulative value of DALYs saved comes to exceed its cumulative total costs starting in 2019. Over 30 years the cost-effectiveness of PVAM in Zambia was estimated to be $24 per DALY saved, making it very cost-effective. Conclusion The methodologies employed in this study provide insights and inputs that can be used to target farmers who are most likely to adopt, to measure their vitamin A intake and to craft messages to promote adoption. PVAM is a long term investment that shows great promise in becoming a highly cost-effective addition to the public health arsenal for combatting micronutrient deficiencies if the 20% adoption rate can be achieved and maintained. Doing so will require effective marketing strategies, including efforts to couple this nutrition-sensitive intervention with nutrition-specific activities, such as targeted nutrition messaging and education, in order to increase the likelihood that adopting farmers will prioritize production for home consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calcium intake remains inadequate in many low‐ and middle‐income countries, especially in Africa and South Asia, where average intakes can be below 400 mg/day. Given the vital role of calcium in bone health, metabolism, and cell signaling, countries with low calcium intake may want to consider food‐based approaches to improve calcium consumption and bioavailability within their population. This is especially true for those with low calcium intake who would benefit the most, including pregnant women (by reducing the risk of preeclampsia) and children (by reducing calcium‐deficiency rickets). Specifically, some animal‐source foods that are naturally high in bioavailable calcium and plant foods that can contribute to calcium intake could be promoted either through policies or educational materials. Some food processing techniques can improve the calcium content in food or increase calcium bioavailability. Staple‐food fortification with calcium can also be a cost‐effective method to increase intake with minimal behavior change required. Lastly, biofortification is currently being investigated to improve calcium content, either through genetic screening and breeding of high‐calcium varieties or through the application of calcium‐rich fertilizers. These mechanisms can be used alone or in combination based on the local context to improve calcium intake within a population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biofortification is the process of increasing the density of vitamins and minerals in a crop through plant breeding-using either conventional methods or genetic engineering-or through agronomic practices. Over the past 15 years, conventional breeding efforts have resulted in the development of varieties of several staple food crops with significant levels of the three micronutrients most limiting in diets: zinc, iron, and vitamin A. More than 15 million people in developing countries now grow and consume biofortified crops. Evidence from nutrition research shows that biofortified varieties provide considerable amounts of bioavailable micronutrients, and consumption of these varieties can improve micronutrient deficiency status among target populations. Farmer adoption and consumer acceptance research shows that farmers and consumers like the various production and consumption characteristics of biofortified varieties, as much as (if not more than) popular conventional varieties, even in the absence of nutritional information. Further development and delivery of these micronutrient-rich varieties can potentially reduce hidden hunger, especially in rural populations whose diets rely on staple food crops. Future work includes strengthening the supply of and the demand for biofortified staple food crops and facilitating targeted investment to those crop-country combinations that have the highest potential nutritional impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Time spent in sedentary behavior is largely due to time spent engaged with electronic screen media. Little is known about the extent to which sedentary behaviors for children with autism spectrum disorder differ from typically developing children. We used parental report to assess and compare time spent in sedentary behaviors for 53 children with autism spectrum disorder and 58 typically developing children aged 3–11 years. We also determined how sedentary behavior was related to child weight status (body mass index z-score). Overall, children with autism spectrum disorder spent an hour more in sedentary behaviors on weekdays compared to typically developing children (5.2 vs 4.2 h, p = 0.03), and most of this difference was due to screen time. The age- and sex-adjusted estimate of weekday total daily screen time was 1.6 h (typically developing) compared to 2.5 h (autism spectrum disorder, p = 0.004 for difference). A significant relationship between BMI z-score and total sedentary behavior time on weekend days was observed among young children with ASD, but not among TD children. The modest association between weekend sedentary behaviour time and BMI z-score among children with ASD suggests that sedentary behaiour is linked to relative weight status in these children. Further research is needed to confirm these findings and identify causal pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The economic feasibility of maize flour and maize meal fortification in Kenya, Uganda, and Zambia is assessed using information about the maize milling industry, households' purchases and consumption levels of maize flour, and the incremental cost and estimated price impacts of fortification. Premix costs comprise the overwhelming share of incremental fortification costs and vary by 50% in Kenya and by more than 100% across the three countries. The estimated incremental cost of maize flour fortification per metric ton varies from $3.19 in Zambia to $4.41 in Uganda. Assuming all incremental costs are passed onto the consumer, fortification in Zambia would result in at most a 0.9% increase in the price of maize flour, and would increase annual outlays of the average maize flour-consuming household by 0.2%. The increases for Kenyans and Ugandans would be even less. Although the coverage of maize flour fortification is not likely to be as high as some advocates have predicted, fortification is economically feasible, and would reduce deficiencies of multiple micronutrients, which are significant public health problems in each of these countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regular physical activity is important for promoting health and well-being; however, physical activity behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have received little attention. We compared physical activity levels among 53 children with ASD and 58 typically developing children aged 3–11 years who participated in the Children’s Activity and Meal Patterns Study (CHAMPS). After adjustment for age and sex the amount of time spent daily in moderate and vigorous activity was similar in children with ASD (50.0 minutes/day and typically developing children 57.1 minutes/day). However, parents reported that children with ASD participated in significantly fewer types of physical activities than did typically developing children (6.9 vs. 9.6, p <.0001) and spent less time annually participating in these activities than typically developing children (158 vs. 225 hours per year, p < 0.0001) after adjusting for age and sex. Although both groups of children engaged in similar levels of moderate and vigorous activity as measured by accelerometry, children with ASD engaged in fewer physical activities and for less time according to parental report, suggesting that some of the activity in children with ASD is not captured by standard questionnaire-based measures. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]