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Retinoic acid (RA), a metabolite of vitamin A, is a small molecule and morphogen that is required for embryonic development. While normal RA signals are required for hepatic development in a variety of vertebrates, a role for RA during mammalian hepatic specification has yet to be defined. To examine the requirement for RA in murine liver induction, we performed whole embryo culture with the small molecule RA inhibitor, BMS493, to attenuate RA signaling immediately prior to hepatic induction and through liver bud formation. BMS493 treated embryos demonstrated a significant loss of hepatic specification that was confined to the prospective dorsal anterior liver bud. Examination of RA attenuated embryos demonstrates that while the liver bud displays normal expression of foregut endoderm markers and the hepato-pancreatobiliary domain marker, PROX1, the dorsal/anterior liver bud excludes the critical hepatic marker, HNF4α, indicating that RA signals are required for dorsal/anterior hepatic induction. These results were confirmed and extended by careful examination of Rdh10lt;supgt;trex/trexlt;/supgt; embryos, which carry a genetic perturbation in RA synthesis. At E9.5 Rdh10lt;supgt;trex/trexlt;/supgt; embryos display a similar yet more significant loss of the anterior/dorsal liver bud. Notably the anterior/dorsal liver bud loss correlates with the known dorsal-ventral gradient of the RA synthesis enzyme, Aldh1a2. In addition to altered hepatic specification, the mesoderm surrounding the liver bud is disorganized in RA abrogated embryos. Analysis of E10.5 Rdh10lt;supgt;trex/trexlt;/supgt; embryos reveals small livers that appear to lack the dorsal/caudal lobes. Finally, addition of exogenous RA prior to hepatic induction results in a liver bud that has failed to thicken and is largely unspecified. Taken together our ex vivo and in vivo evidence demonstrate that the generation of normal RA gradients is required for hepatic patterning, specification, and growth.

The etiology and pathogenesis of craniofacial birth defects are multifactorial and include both genetic and environmental factors. Despite the identification of numerous genes associated with congenital craniofacial anomalies, our understanding of their etiology remains incomplete, and many affected individuals have an unknown genetic diagnosis. Here, we show that conditional loss of a Mediator complex subunit protein, Med23 in mouse neural crest cells ( Med23 fx/fx; Wnt1-Cre), results in micrognathia, glossoptosis, and cleft palate, mimicking the phenotype of Pierre Robin sequence. Sox9 messenger RNA and protein levels are both upregulated in neural crest cell–derived mesenchyme surrounding Meckel’s cartilage and in the palatal shelves in Med23 fx/fx; Wnt1-Cre mutant embryos compared to controls. Consistent with these observations, we demonstrate that Med23 binds to the promoter region of Sox9 and represses Sox9 expression in vitro. Interestingly, Sox9 binding to β-catenin is enhanced in Med23 fx/fx; Wnt1-Cre mutant embryos, which, together with downregulation of Col2a1 and Wnt signaling target genes, results in decreased proliferation and altered jaw skeletal differentiation and cleft palate. Altogether, our data support a cell-autonomous requirement for Med23 in neural crest cells, potentially linking the global transcription machinery through Med23 to the etiology and pathogenesis of craniofacial anomalies such as micrognathia and cleft palate.

The neonatal mouse retina is a well-characterized experimental model for investigating factors impacting retinal angiogenesis and inner blood-retinal barrier (BRB) integrity. Retinoic acid (RA) is an essential signaling molecule. RA is needed for vasculogenic development in embryos and endothelial barrier integrity in zebrafish retina and adult mouse brain; however, the function of this signaling molecule in developing mammalian retinal vasculature remains unknown. This study aims to investigate the role of RA signaling in angiogenesis and inner BRB integrity in mouse neonatal retina.RA distribution in the developing neurovascular retina was assessed in mice carrying an RA-responsive transgene. RA function in retinal angiogenesis was determined by treating C57BL/6 neonatal pups with a pharmacological inhibitor of RA signaling BMS493 or control vehicle. BRB integrity assessed by monitoring leakage of injected tracer into extravascular retinal tissue.RA signaling activity is present in peripheral astrocytes in domains corresponding to RA activity of the underlying neural retina. RA inhibition impaired retinal angiogenesis and reduced endothelial cell proliferation. RA inhibition also compromised BRB integrity. Vascular leakage was not associated with altered expression of CLDN5, PLVAP, LEF1, or VEcad.RA signaling is needed for angiogenesis and integrity of the BRB in the neonatal mouse retina.

Developmental defects of primitive choanae, an anatomical path to connect the embryonic nasal and oral cavity, result in disorders called choanal atresia (CA), which are associated with many congenital diseases and require immediate clinical intervention after birth. Previous studies revealed that reduced retinoid signaling underlies the etiology of CA. In the present study, by using multiple mouse models which conditionally deleted Rdh10 and Gata3 during embryogenesis, we showed that Gata3 expression is regulated by retinoid signaling during embryonic craniofacial development and plays crucial roles for development of the primitive choanae. Interestingly, Gata3 loss of function is known to cause hypoparathyroidism, sensorineural deafness and renal disease (HDR) syndrome, which exhibits CA as one of the phenotypes in humans. Our model partially phenocopies HDR syndrome with CA, and is thus a useful tool for investigating the molecular and cellular mechanisms of HDR syndrome. We further uncovered critical synergy of Gata3 and retinoid signaling during embryonic development, which will shed light on novel molecular and cellular etiology of congenital defects in primitive choanae formation.

Development of the vertebrate head is a complex and dynamic process, which requires integration of all three germ layers and their derivatives. Of special importance are ectoderm-derived cells that form the cranial placodes, which then differentiate into the cranial ganglia and sensory organs. Critical to a fully functioning head, defects in cranial placode and sensory organ development can result in congenital craniofacial anomalies. In a forward genetic screen aimed at identifying novel regulators of craniofacial development, we discovered an embryonically lethal mouse mutant, snouty, which exhibits malformation of the facial prominences, cranial nerves and vasculature. The snouty mutation was mapped to a single nucleotide change in a ubiquitously expressed gene, Med23, which encodes a subunit of the global transcription co-factor complex, Mediator. Phenotypic analyses revealed that the craniofacial anomalies, particularly of the cranial ganglia, were caused by a failure in the proper specification of cranial placode neuronal precursors. Molecular analyses determined that defects in cranial placode neuronal differentiation in Med23sn/sn mutants were associated with elevated WNT/β-catenin signaling, which can be partially rescued through combined Lrp6 and Wise loss-of-function. Our work therefore reveals a surprisingly tissue specific role for the ubiquitously expressed mediator complex protein Med23 in placode differentiation during cranial ganglia development. This highlights the importance of coupling general transcription to the regulation of WNT signaling during embryogenesis.

Retinoic acid (RA), a vitamin A (retinol) derivative, has pleiotropic functions during embryonic development. The synthesis of RA requires two enzymatic reactions: oxidation of retinol into retinaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenases (ADHs) or retinol dehydrogenases (RDHs), and oxidation of retinaldehyde into RA by class 1A aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH1as), such as ALDH1a1, ALDH1a2, and ALDH1a3. Levels of RA in tissues are regulated by spatiotemporal expression patterns of genes encoding RA-synthesizing and degrading enzymes such as cytochrome P450 26 (Cyp26s). Here, we show that RDH10 is important for both sensory and non-sensory formation of the vestibule of the inner ear. Mice deficient for Rdh10 exhibit failure of utricle-saccule separation, otoconial formation, and zonal patterning of vestibular sensory organs. These phenotypes are similar to those of Aldh1a3 knockouts, and the sensory phenotype is complementary to that of Cyp26b1 knockouts. Together, these results demonstrate that RDH10 and ALDH1a3 are the key RA synthesis enzymes involved in vestibular development. Furthermore, we discovered that RA induces Cyp26b1 expression in the developing vestibular sensory organs, which generates the differential RA signaling required for zonal patterning.

BACKGROUND Proper development of the great vessels of the heart and septation of the cardiac outflow tract requires cardiac neural crest cells. These cells give rise to the parasympathetic cardiac ganglia, the smooth muscle layer of the great vessels, some cardiomyocytes, and the conotruncal cushions and aorticopulmonary septum of the outflow tract. Ablation of cardiac neural crest cells results in defective patterning of each of these structures. Previous studies have shown that targeted deletion of the forkhead transcription factor C2 (Foxc2), results in cardiac phenotypes similar to that derived from cardiac neural crest cell ablation. RESULTS We report that Foxc2-/- embryos on the 129s6/SvEv inbred genetic background display persistent truncus arteriosus and hypoplastic ventricles before embryonic lethality. Foxc2 loss-of-function resulted in perturbed cardiac neural crest cell migration and their reduced contribution to the outflow tract as evidenced by lineage tracing analyses together with perturbed expression of the neural crest cell markers Sox10 and Crabp1. Foxc2 loss-of-function also resulted in alterations in PlexinD1, Twist1, PECAM1, and Hand1/2 expression in association with vascular and ventricular defects. CONCLUSIONS Our data indicate Foxc2 is required for proper migration of cardiac neural crest cells, septation of the outflow tract, and development of the ventricles. Developmental Dynamics 247:1286-1296, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Craniofacial development is a complex process that involves sequential growth and fusion of the facial prominences. When these processes fail, congenital craniofacial anomalies can occur. For example, choanal atresia (CA) is a congenital craniofacial anomaly in which the connection between the nasal airway and nasopharynx is completely blocked. CA occurs in approximately 1/5000 live births and is a frequent component of congenital disorders such as CHARGE, Treacher Collins, Crouzon and Pfeiffer syndromes. However, the detailed cellular and molecular mechanisms underpinning the etiology and pathogenesis of CA remain elusive. In this study, we discovered that mice with mutations in retinol dehydrogenase 10 (Rdh10), which perturbs Vitamin A metabolism and retinoid signaling, exhibit fully penetrant CA. Interestingly, we demonstrate Rdh10 is specifically required in non-neural crest cells prior to E10.5 for proper choanae formation, and that in the absence of Rdh10, Fgf8 is ectopically expressed in the nasal fin. Furthermore, we found that defects in choanae development are associated with decreased cell proliferation and increased cell death in the epithelium of the developing nasal cavity, which retards invagination of the nasal cavity, and thus appears to contribute to the pathogenesis of CA. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that RDH10 is essential during the early stages of facial morphogenesis for the formation of a functional nasal airway, and furthermore establish Rdh10 mutant mice as an important model system to study CA.

In mammals, the epithelial tissues of major salivary glands generate saliva and drain it into the oral cavity. For submandibular salivary glands (SMG), it is known that the epithelial tissues arise during embryogenesis from naïve oral ectoderm adjacent to the base of the tongue, which begins to thicken, express SOX9, and invaginate into underlying mesenchyme. The developmental mechanisms initiating salivary gland development remain unexplored. In this study we show that retinoic acid (RA) signaling activity at the site of gland initiation is co-localized with expression of retinol metabolic genes Rdh10, and Aldh1a2 in the underlying SMG mesenchyme. Utilizing a novel ex vivo assay for SMG initiation developed for this study, we show that RDH10 and RA are required for salivary gland initiation. Moreover, we show that the requirement for RA in gland initiation involves canonical signaling through retinoic acid receptors (RAR). Finally, we show that RA signaling essential for gland initiation is transduced specifically through RARα, with no contribution from other RAR isoforms. This is the first study to identify a molecular signal regulating mammalian salivary gland initiation.

Organogenesis is orchestrated by cell and tissue interactions mediated by molecular signals. Identification of relevant signals, and the tissues that generate and receive them, are important goals of developmental research. Here, we demonstrate that Retinoic Acid (RA) is a critical signaling molecule important for morphogenesis of mammalian submandibular salivary glands (SMG). By examining late stage RA deficient embryos of Rdh10 mutant mice we show that SMG development requires RA in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, we find that active RA signaling occurs in SMG tissues, arising earlier than any other known marker of SMG development and persisting throughout gland morphogenesis. At the initial bud stage of development, we find RA production occurs in SMG mesenchyme, while RA signaling occurs in epithelium. We also demonstrate active RA signaling occurs in glands cultured ex vivo, and treatment with an inhibitor of RA signaling blocks growth and branching. Together these data identify RA signaling as a direct regulator of SMG organogenesis.

Epigenetic regulation is required to ensure the precise spatial and temporal pattern of gene expression that is necessary for embryonic development. Although the roles of some epigenetic modifications in embryonic development have been investigated in depth, the role of methylation at lysine 79 (H3K79me) is poorly understood. Dot1L, a unique methyltransferase for H3K79, forms complexes with distinct sets of co-factors. To further understand the role of H3K79me in embryogenesis, we generated a mouse knockout of Mllt10, the gene encoding Af10, one Dot1L complex co-factor. We find homozygous Mllt10 knockout mutants (Mllt10-KO) exhibit midline facial cleft. The midfacial defects of Mllt10-KO embryos correspond to hyperterolism and are associated with reduced proliferation of mesenchyme in developing nasal processes and adjacent tissue. We demonstrate that H3K79me level is significantly decreased in nasal processes of Mllt10-KO embryos. Importantly, we find that expression of AP2α, a gene critical for midfacial development, is directly regulated by Af10-dependent H3K79me, and expression AP2α is reduced specifically in nasal processes of Mllt10-KO embryos. Suppression of H3K79me completely mimicked the Mllt10-KO phenotype. Together these data are the first to demonstrate that Af10-dependent H3K79me is essential for development of nasal processes and adjacent tissues, and consequent midfacial formation.

Pigment regeneration is critical for the function of cone photoreceptors in bright and rapidly-changing light conditions. This process is facilitated by the recently-characterized retina visual cycle, in which Müller cells recycle spent all-trans-retinol visual chromophore back to 11-cis-retinol. This 11-cis-retinol is oxidized selectively in cones to the 11-cis-retinal used for pigment regeneration. However, the enzyme responsible for the oxidation of 11-cis-retinol remains unknown. Here, we sought to determine whether retinol dehydrogenase 10 (RDH10), upregulated in rod/cone hybrid retinas and expressed abundantly in Müller cells, is the enzyme that drives this reaction. We created mice lacking RDH10 either in cone photoreceptors, Müller cells, or the entire retina. In vivo electroretinography and transretinal recordings revealed normal cone photoresponses in all RDH10-deficient mouse lines. Notably, their cone-driven dark adaptation both in vivo and in isolated retina was unaffected, indicating that RDH10 is not required for the function of the retina visual cycle. We also generated transgenic mice expressing RDH10 ectopically in rod cells. However, rod dark adaptation was unaffected by the expression of RDH10 and transgenic rods were unable to use cis-retinol for pigment regeneration. We conclude that RDH10 is not the dominant retina 11-cis-RDH, leaving its primary function in the retina unknown.

Retinoic acid (RA), the active metabolite of vitamin A, has been demonstrated to be important for growth and branching morphogenesis of mammalian embryonic salivary gland epithelium. However, it is not known whether RA functions directly within epithelial cells or in associated tissues that influence morphogenesis of salivary epithelium. Moreover, downstream targets of RA regulation have not been identified.Here, we show that canonical RA signaling occurs in multiple tissues of embryonic mouse salivary glands, including epithelium, associated parasympathetic ganglion neurons, and nonneuronal mesenchyme. By culturing epithelium explants in isolation from other tissues, we demonstrate that RA influences epithelium morphogenesis by direct action in that tissue. Moreover, we demonstrate that inhibition of RA signaling represses cell proliferation and expression of FGF10 signaling targets, and upregulates expression of basal epithelial keratins Krt5 and Krt14. Importantly, we show that the stem cell gene Kit is regulated inversely from Krt5/Krt14 by RA signaling.RA regulates Krt5 and Krt14 expression independently of stem cell character in developing salivary epithelium. RA, or chemical inhibitors of RA signaling, could potentially be used for modulating growth and differentiation of epithelial stem cells for the purpose of re-populating damaged glands or generating bioengineered organs. Developmental Dynamics 246:135-147, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Retinoic acid (RA) is the active metabolite of vitamin A (retinol) that controls growth and development. The first step of RA synthesis is controlled by enzymes of the alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and retinol dehydrogenase (RDH) families that catalyze oxidation of retinol to retinaldehyde. The second step of RA synthesis is controlled by members of the aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) family also known as retinaldehyde dehydrogenase (RALDH) that further oxidize retinaldehyde to produce RA. RA functions as a ligand for DNA-binding RA receptors that directly regulate transcription of specific target genes. Elucidation of the vitamin A metabolic pathway and investigation of the endogenous function of vitamin A metabolites has been greatly improved by development of mouse ADH, RDH, and RALDH loss-of-function models. ADH knockouts have demonstrated a postnatal role for this enzyme family in clearance of excess retinol to prevent vitamin A toxicity and in generation of RA for postnatal survival during vitamin A deficiency. A point mutation in Rdh10 generated by ethylnitrosourea has demonstrated that RDH10 generates much of the retinaldehyde needed for RA synthesis during embryonic development. Raldh1, Raldh2, and Raldh3 knockouts have demonstrated that RALDH1, RALDH2, and RALDH3 generate most of the RA needed during embryogenesis. These mouse models serve as instrumental tools for providing new insight into retinoid function. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Retinoid and Lipid Metabolism.

During neural tube closure, Pax3 is required to inhibit p53-dependent apoptosis. Pax3 is also required for migration of cardiac neural crest (CNC) from the neural tube to the heart and septation of the primitive single cardiac outflow tract into the aorta and pulmonary arteries. Whether Pax3 is required for CNC migration and outflow tract septation by inhibiting p53-dependent apoptosis is not known. In this study, mouse strains carrying reporters linked to Pax3 alleles were used to map the fate of CNC cells in embryos which were either Pax3-sufficient (expressing one or two functional Pax3 alleles) or Pax3-deficient (expressing two null Pax3 alleles), and in which p53 had been inactivated or not. Migrating CNC cells were observed in both Pax3-sufficient and -deficient embryos, but CNC cells were sparse and disorganized in Pax3-deficient embryos as migration progressed. The defective migration was associated with increased cell death. Suppression of p53, either by null mutation of the p53 gene, or administration of a p53 inhibitor, pifithrin-α, prevented the defective CNC migration and apoptosis in Pax3-deficient embryos, and also restored proper development of cardiac outflow tracts. These results indicate that Pax3 is required for cardiac outflow tract septation because it blocks p53-dependent processes during CNC migration.

BACKGROUND: Maternal diabetes increases risk for congenital malformations, particularly cardiac outflow tract defects. Maternal diabetes inhibits expression of Pax3 in neuroepithelium through hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress. The neuroepithelium gives rise to the neural crest, and Pax3 expression in cardiac neural crest (CNC) is required for CNC migration to the heart and for outflow tract septation. Here we tested whether maternal diabetes, through hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress, before the onset of CNC delamination, impairs CNC migration and cardiac outflow tract septation. METHODS: CNC migration was mapped in mouse embryos whose mothers were diabetic, or transiently hyperglycemic, or in which oxidative stress was transiently induced, using reporters linked to Pax3 expression. CNC apoptosis was examined by TUNEL assay. Outflow tract septation was examined histologically and by gross inspection. RESULTS: Few, if any, migrating CNC cells were observed in embryos of diabetic mice, and this was associated with increased apoptosis along the path of CNC migration. Outflow tract defects were significantly increased in fetuses of diabetic mice. Notably, induction of hyperglycemia or oxidative stress on the day prior to the onset of Pax3 expression and CNC migration also impaired CNC migration, increased apoptosis, and caused outflow tract defects. However, antioxidants administered on the day prior to the onset of Pax3 expression and CNC migration prevented these effects of hyperglycemia or oxidative stress. CONCLUSIONS: In diabetic pregnancy, oxidative stress, which inhibits expression of genes required for CNC viability, causes subsequent CNC depletion by apoptosis during migration, which leads to outflow tract defects. Birth Defects Research (Part A), 2008. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The functions of the inner ear are intimately dependent on its intricate three-dimensional structure and the mechanisms underlying its formation have been an area of active research interest. Recent advances in gene expression analyses and fate-mapping studies have provided some insights into this developmental process. The six sensory organs within the mouse inner ear and the neurons that innervate them are derived from a neural–sensory competent region at the otic cup stage. Notably, the neurons of the cochleovestibular (CV) nerve share a common lineage with two sensory organs, the maculae of the utricle and saccule. Within the sensory organs, hair cells can share a common lineage with supporting cells and even with nonsensory cells. Genetic fate-mapping studies also demonstrate contribution of neural crest cells to the mouse inner ear and trajectories of the cochlear and vestibular nerves to the sensory organs.

Regulation of patterning and morphogenesis during embryonic development depends on tissue-specific signaling by retinoic acid (RA), the active form of Vitamin A (retinol). The first enzymatic step in RA synthesis, the oxidation of retinol to retinal, is thought to be carried out by the ubiquitous or overlapping activities of redundant alcohol dehydrogenases. The second oxidation step, the conversion of retinal to RA, is performed by retinaldehyde dehydrogenases. Thus, the specific spatiotemporal distribution of retinoid synthesis is believed to be controlled exclusively at the level of the second oxidation reaction. In an N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU)-induced forward genetic screen we discovered a new midgestation lethal mouse mutant, called trex, which displays craniofacial, limb, and organ abnormalities. The trex phenotype is caused by a mutation in the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase, RDH10. Using protein modeling, enzymatic assays, and mutant embryos, we determined that RDH10trex mutant protein lacks the ability to oxidize retinol to retinal, resulting in insufficient RA signaling. Thus, we show that the first oxidative step of Vitamin A metabolism, which is catalyzed in large part by the retinol dehydrogenase RDH10, is critical for the spatiotemporal synthesis of RA. Furthermore, these results identify a new nodal point in RA metabolism during embryogenesis.

Neural crest cells (NCC) comprise a multipotent, migratory stem cell and progenitor population that gives rise to numerous cell and tissue types within a developing embryo, including craniofacial bone and cartilage, neurons and glia of the peripheral nervous system, and melanocytes within the skin. Here we describe two novel stable transgenic mouse lines suitable for lineage tracing and analysis of gene function in NCC. Firstly, using the F10N enhancer of the Mef2c gene (Mef2c-F10N) linked to LacZ, we generated transgenic mice (Mef2c-F10N-LacZ) that express LacZ in the majority, if not all migrating NCC that delaminate from the neural tube. Mef2c-F10N-LacZ then continues to be expressed primarily in neurogenic, gliogenic and melanocytic NCC and their derivatives, but not in ectomesenchymal derivatives. Secondly, we used the same Mef2c-F10N enhancer together with Cre recombinase to generate transgenic mice (Mef2c-F10N-Cre) that can be used to indelibly label, or alter gene function in, migrating NCC and their derivatives. At early stages of development, Mef2c-F10N-LacZ and Mef2c-F10N-Cre label NCC in a pattern similar to Wnt1-Cre mice, with the exception that Mef2c-F10N-LacZ and Mef2c-F10N-Cre specifically label NCC that have delaminated from the neural plate, while premigratory NCC are not labeled. Thus, our Mef2c-F10N-LacZ and Mef2c-F10N-Cre transgenic mice provide new resources for tracing migratory NCC and analyzing gene function in migrating and differentiating NCC independently of NCC formation.

Mammalian cell culture is the process of growing animal cells in vitro in a flask or dish. This unit describes the methods, equipment, supplies, and reagents used in a cell culture laboratory. Because preventing contamination and maintaining purity of cell cultures is arguably the greatest challenge in animal cell culture, the principles of aseptic technique in mammalian cell culture are presented in detail. Cell culture media and additives are discussed. A method of counting cells and assessing their viability with a hemacytometer is illustrated. The steps needed to maintain an adherent cell line by feeding and passing cells from one culture vessel to another are presented and variations for passing suspension-grown cells are also outlined. Long-term cryogenic storage of cells in liquid nitrogen is discussed and a protocol for freezing cells is provided, as are details for thawing and recovering viable cells from frozen stocks. Curr. Protoc. Essential Lab. Tech. 5:4.3.1-4.3.32. © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Keywords: cell culture; aseptic technique; culture medium; passage; adherent cells; cryopreservation; liquid nitrogen freezer; hemacytometer

To increase our understanding of imprinting and epigenetic gene regulation, we undertook a search for new imprinted genes. We identified Gatm , a gene that encodes l -arginine:glycine amidinotransferase, which catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the synthesis of creatine. In mouse, Gatm is expressed during development and is imprinted in the placenta and yolk sac, but not in embryonic tissues. The Gatm gene maps to mouse chromosome 2 in a region not previously shown to contain imprinted genes. To determine whether Gatm is located in a cluster of imprinted genes, we investigated the expression pattern of genes located near Gatm: Duox1-2, Slc28a2, Slc30a4 and a transcript corresponding to LOC214616. We found no evidence that any of these genes is imprinted in placenta. We show that a CpG island associated with Gatm is unmethylated, as is a large CpG island associated with a neighboring gene. This genomic screen for novel imprinted genes has elucidated a new connection between imprinting and creatine metabolism during embryonic development in mammals.

Bipotent axial stem cells residing in the caudal epiblast during late gastrulation generate neuroectodermal and presomitic mesodermal progeny that coordinate somitogenesis with neural tube formation, but the mechanism that controls these two fates is not fully understood. Retinoic acid (RA) restricts the anterior extent of caudal fibroblast growth factor 8 (Fgf8) expression in both mesoderm and neural plate to control somitogenesis and neurogenesis, however it remains unclear where RA acts to control the spatial expression of caudal Fgf8. Here, we found that mouse Raldh2-/- embryos, lacking RA synthesis and displaying a consistent small somite defect, exhibited abnormal expression of key markers of axial stem cell progeny, with decreased Sox2+ and Sox1+ neuroectodermal progeny and increased Tbx6+ presomitic mesodermal progeny. The Raldh2-/- small somite defect was rescued by treatment with an FGF receptor antagonist. Rdh10 mutants, with a less severe RA synthesis defect, were found to exhibit a small somite defect and anterior expansion of caudal Fgf8 expression only for somites 1-6, with normal somite size and Fgf8 expression thereafter. Rdh10 mutants were found to lack RA activity during the early phase when somites are small, but at the 6-somite stage RA activity was detected in neural plate although not in presomitic mesoderm. Expression of a dominant-negative RA receptor in mesoderm eliminated RA activity in presomitic mesoderm but did not affect somitogenesis. Thus, RA activity in the neural plate is sufficient to prevent anterior expansion of caudal Fgf8 expression associated with a small somite defect. Our studies provide evidence that RA restriction of Fgf8 expression in undifferentiated neural progenitors stimulates neurogenesis while also restricting the anterior extent of the mesodermal Fgf8 mRNA gradient that controls somite size, providing new insight into the mechanism that coordinates somitogenesis with neurogenesis.

Confocal microscopy has been an invaluable tool for studying cellular or sub-cellular biological processes. The study of vertebrate embryology is based largely on examination of whole embryos and organs. The application of confocal microscopy to immunostained whole mount embryos, combined with three dimensional (3D) image reconstruction technologies, opens new avenues for synthesizing molecular, cellular and anatomical analysis of vertebrate development. Optical cropping of the region of interest enables visualization of structures that are morphologically complex or obscured, and solid surface rendering of fluorescent signal facilitates understanding of 3D structures. We have applied these technologies to whole mount immunostained mouse embryos to visualize developmental morphogenesis of the mammalian inner ear and heart. Using molecular markers of neuron development and transgenic reporters of neural crest cell lineage we have examined development of inner ear neurons that originate from the otic vesicle, along with the supporting glial cells that derive from the neural crest. The image analysis reveals a previously unrecognized coordinated spatial organization between migratory neural crest cells and neurons of the cochleovestibular nerve. The images also enable visualization of early cochlear spiral nerve morphogenesis relative to the developing cochlea, demonstrating a heretofore unknown association of neural crest cells with extending peripheral neurite projections. We performed similar analysis of embryonic hearts in mouse and chick, documenting the distribution of adhesion molecules during septation of the outflow tract and remodeling of aortic arches. Surface rendering of lumen space defines the morphology in a manner similar to resin injection casting and micro-CT.

Removal of a telomere from yeast chromosome VII in a strain having two copies of this chromosome often results in its loss. Here we show that there are three pathways that can stabilize this broken chromosome: homologous recombination, nonhomologous end joining, and de novo telomere addition. Both in a wild-type and a recombination deficient rad52 strain, most stabilization events were due to homologous recombination, whereas nonhomologous end joining was exceptionally rare. De novo telomere addition was relatively rare, stabilizing

The ear is the vertebrate sense organ of hearing and balance. Neural crest cells (NCC), notable for varied contributions to other parts of the head and body, contribute multiple tissues to the ear. In higher vertebrates the ear is composed of three distinct compartments, the inner, middle, and outer ear, each requiring developmental contribution from NCC. Within the inner ear, NCC are progenitors of Schwann cells of the cochleovestibular nerve and melanocytes of the cochlea. For the middle ear and outer ear, NCC produce bone and cartilage and, by developmental remodeling, the air-filled cavities essential for hearing. Abnormalities of NCC cause hearing loss, sensorineural in the case of inner ear NCC, or conductive in the case of middle and outer ear NCC. Middle ear, outer ear, and jaw elements of different vertebrates exhibit key evolutionary variation, a result of alterations in derivatives of first and second pharyngeal arch NCC.

SummaryThe vitamin A metabolite retinoic acid (RA) provides patterning information during vertebrate embryogenesis, but the mechanism through which RA influences limb development is unclear. During patterning of the limb proximodistal axis (upper limb to digits), avian studies suggest that a proximal RA signal generated in the trunk antagonizes a distal fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signal. However, mouse and zebrafish genetic studies suggest that loss of RA suppresses forelimb initiation. Here, using genetic and pharmacological approaches, we demonstrate that limb proximodistal patterning is not RA dependent, thus indicating that RA-FGF antagonism does not occur along the proximodistal axis of the limb. Instead, our studies show that RA-FGF antagonism acts prior to limb budding along the anteroposterior axis of the trunk lateral plate mesoderm to provide a patterning cue that guides formation of the forelimb field. These findings reconcile disparate ideas regarding RA-FGF antagonism and provide insight into how endogenous RA programs the early embryo.

Embryonic development is orchestrated by a small number of signaling pathways, one of which is the retinoic acid (RA) signaling pathway. Vitamin A is essential for vertebrate embryonic development because it is the molecular precursor of the essential signaling molecule RA. The level and distribution of RA signaling within a developing embryo must be tightly regulated; too much, or too little, or abnormal distribution, all disrupt embryonic development. Precise regulation of RA signaling during embryogenesis is achieved by proteins involved in vitamin A metabolism, retinoid transport, nuclear signaling, and RA catabolism. The reversible first step in conversion of the precursor vitamin A to the active retinoid RA is mediated by retinol dehydrogenase 10 (RDH10) and dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR family) member 3 (DHRS3), two related membrane-bound proteins that functionally activate each other to mediate the interconversion of retinol and retinal. Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) enzymes do not contribute to RA production under normal conditions during embryogenesis. Genes involved in vitamin A metabolism and RA catabolism are expressed in tissue-specific patterns and are subject to feedback regulation. Mutations in genes encoding these proteins disrupt morphogenesis of many systems in a developing embryo. Together these observations demonstrate the importance of vitamin A metabolism in regulating RA signaling during embryonic development in vertebrates.

Here we describe a relatively inexpensive and easy method to produce high quality images that reveal fine topological details of vertebrate embryonic structures. The method relies on nuclear staining of whole mount embryos in combination with confocal microscopy or conventional widefield fluorescent microscopy. In cases where confocal microscopy is used in combination with whole mount nuclear staining, the resulting embryo images can rival the clarity and resolution of images of similar specimens produced by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The fluorescent nuclear staining may be performed with a variety of cell permeable nuclear dyes, enabling the technique to be performed with multiple standard microscope/illumination or confocal/laser systems. The method may be used to document morphology of embryos of a variety of organisms, as well as individual organs and tissues. Nuclear stain imaging imposes minimal impact on embryonic specimens, enabling imaged specimens to be utilized for additional assays.

Telomeres are required for the stable maintenance of chromosomes in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Telomeres also repress the expression of genes in their vicinity, a phenomenon known as telomere position effect. In an attempt to construct a conditional telomere, an inducible promoter was introduced adjacent to a single telomere of a chromosome such that transcription could be induced toward the end of the chromosome. Transcription toward two other essential chromosomal elements, centromeres and origins of replication, eliminates their function. In contrast, transcription toward a telomere did not affect the stability function of the telomere as measured by the loss rate of the transcribed chromosome. Transcription proceeded through the entire length of the telomeric tract and caused a modest reduction in the average length of the transcribed telomere. Transcription of the telomere substantially reduced the frequency of cells in which an adjacent URA3 gene was subject to telomere position effect. These results indicate that telomere position effect can be alleviated without compromising chromosome stability.

Retinoic acid (atRA) signaling is essential for regulating embryonic development, and atRA levels must be tightly controlled in order to prevent congenital abnormalities and fetal death which can result from both excessive and insufficient atRA signaling. Cellular enzymes synthesize atRA from Vitamin A, which is obtained from dietary sources. Embryos express multiple enzymes that are biochemically capable of catalyzing the initial step of Vitamin A oxidation, but the precise contribution of these enzymes to embryonic atRA synthesis remains unknown. Using Rdh10trex-mutant embryos, dietary supplementation of retinaldehyde, and retinol dehydrogenase (RDH) activity assays, we demonstrate that RDH10 is the primary RDH responsible for the first step of embryonic Vitamin A oxidation. Moreover, we show that this initial step of atRA synthesis occurs predominantly in a membrane-bound cellular compartment, which prevents inhibition by the cytosolic cellular retinol-binding protein (RBP1). These studies reveal that widely expressed cytosolic enzymes with RDH activity play a very limited role in embryonic atRA synthesis under normal dietary conditions. This provides a breakthrough in understanding the precise cellular mechanisms that regulate Vitamin A metabolism and the synthesis of the essential embryonic regulatory molecule atRA.

Retinoic acid (RA) is purported to be required for expression of genes controlling proximodistal (Meis2) or anteroposterior (Shh) limb patterning. Embryos lacking RDH10, the primary enzyme synthesizing retinaldehyde during mouse development, survive until E14.5 with stunted forelimbs but apparently normal hindlimbs. Using embryos carrying the RARE-lacZ RA-reporter transgene, we show that endogenous RA activity in Rdh10trex/trex mutants is detected in neuroectoderm but not limbs during initiation and patterning. Treatment of Rdh10 mutants with 25 nM RA restores RARE-lacZ activity to limb mesoderm, validating RARE-lacZ and verifying that RA is absent in mutant limbs. In Rdh10 mutants, hindlimbs exhibit normal Meis2/Shh expression and skeletal patterning, and although forelimbs are growth-retarded their Meis2 expression remains normal. Later in development, Rdh10 mutants lack interdigital RA activity and accordingly fail to exhibit normal loss of interdigital mesenchyme. These findings demonstrate that RA is unnecessary for limb patterning but required later for interdigital tissue loss. Developmental Dynamics 240:1142–1150, 2011. © 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Yeast strains were constructed in which a single telomere could be eliminated from the end of a dispensable chromosome. In wild-type cells, elimination of a telomere caused a RAD9-mediated cell cycle arrest, indicating that telomeres help cells to distinguish intact chromosomes from damaged DNA. However, many cells recovered from the arrest without repairing the damaged chromosome, replicating and segregating it for as many as ten cell divisions prior to its eventual loss. Telomere elimination caused a dramatic increase in loss of the chromosome in all strains examined, demonstrating that yeast telomeres are also essential for maintaining chromosome stability. Thus, in spite of checkpoint and DNA damage repair systems, many chromosomes that lose a telomere are themselves destined for loss.

Proper craniofacial development begins during gastrulation and requires the coordinated integration of each germ layer tissue (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) and its derivatives in concert with the precise regulation of cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. Neural crest cells, which are derived from ectoderm, are a migratory progenitor cell population that generates most of the cartilage, bone, and connective tissue of the head and face. Neural crest cell development is regulated by a combination of intrinsic cell autonomous signals acquired during their formation, balanced with extrinsic signals from tissues with which the neural crest cells interact during their migration and differentiation. Although craniofacial anomalies are typically attributed to defects in neural crest cell development, the cause may be intrinsic or extrinsic. Therefore, we performed a phenotype-driven ENU mutagenesis screen in mice with the aim of identifying novel alleles in an unbiased manner, that are critically required for early craniofacial development. Here we describe 10 new mutant lines, which exhibit phenotypes affecting frontonasal and pharyngeal arch patterning, neural and vascular development as well as sensory organ morphogenesis. Interestingly, our data imply that neural crest cells and endothelial cells may employ similar developmental programs and be interdependent during early embryogenesis, which collectively is critical for normal craniofacial morphogenesis. Furthermore our novel mutants that model human conditions such as exencephaly, craniorachischisis, DiGeorge, and Velocardiofacial sydnromes could be very useful in furthering our understanding of the complexities of specific human diseases.

Telomeres are the physical ends of chromosomes. In yeast, when a gene is placed near a telomere, its transcription is repressed. Genes under the influence of this telomeric position effects switch between a repressed state and a transcriptionally active state, each of which is stable for many cell generations. Telomeric position effect may provide a model system for the study of heritable gene regulation in other, more complex organisms.

Patterning and morphogenesis of neural crest-derived tissues within a developing vertebrate embryo rely on a complex balance between signals acquired by neural crest cells in the neuroepithelium during their formation and signals from the tissues that the neural crest cells contact during their migration. Axial identity of hindbrain neural crest is controlled by a combinatorial pattern of Hox gene expression. Cellular interactions that pattern neural crest involve signals from the same key molecular families that regulate other aspects of patterning and morphogenesis within a developing embryo, namely the BMP, SHH and FGF pathways. The developmental program that regulates neural crest cell fate is both plastic and fixed. As a cohort of interacting cells, neural crest cells carry information that directs the axial pattern and species-specific morphology of the head and face. As individual cells, neural crest cells are responsive to signals from each other as well as from non-neural crest tissues in the environment. General rules and fundamental mechanisms have been important for the conservation of basic patterning of neural crest, but exceptions are notable and relevant. The key to furthering our understanding of important processes such as craniofacial development will require a better characterization of the molecular determinants of the endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm and the effects that these molecules have on neural crest cell development.

Retinoic Acid (RA) is a small lipophilic signaling molecule essential for embryonic development and adult tissue maintenance. Both an excess of RA and a deficiency of RA can cause pathogenic anomalies, hence it is critical to understand the mechanisms controlling the spatial and temporal distribution of RA. However, our current understanding of these processes remains incomplete. Vitamin A is metabolized to RA via two sequential enzymatic reactions. The first requires retinol dehydrogenase (RDH) activity to oxidize Vitamin A (retinol) to retinal, and the second requires retinaldehyde activity (RALDH) to oxidize retinal into RA. The first reaction has previously been attributed to the alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) family, whose genes are ubiquitously or redundantly expressed. Consequently, the specificity of RA synthesis was thought to reside exclusively at the level of the second reaction. To better understand the metabolism of Vitamin A into RA during embryogenesis, we generated new mouse models that disrupt this process. Here we describe a new targeted knockout of Rdh10 in which RA synthesis is severely impaired, particularly at critical early embryonic stages. We also introduce a new mutant allele of Aldh1a2. Both mutations produce similar developmental defects resulting in lethality around embryonic day 10.5 (E10.5). The severity of the Rdh10 null phenotype demonstrates that embryonic oxidation of retinol is carried out primarily by RDH10 and that neither ADHs nor other enzymes contribute significantly to this reaction. We also show that reduced RA production results in upregulation of Rdh10. These data demonstrate that RDH10 plays a critical role in mediating the rate limiting RDH step of Vitamin A metabolism and functions as a nodal point in feedback regulation of RA synthesis. Moreover, RDH10-mediated oxidation of retinol plays as important a role in the control and regulation of RA production during embryogenesis as does the subsequent RALDH-mediated reaction.

The unusually high error rate of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase (HIV-1 RT) suggests that polymerization errors by this enzyme contribute to the genetic variability of the AIDS virus. We have analyzed the mechanism for HIV-1 RT infidelity by studying two distinct steps that might lead to base substitution mutations: nucleotide misinsertions and elongation from 3'-terminal DNA mispairs. Our results indicate that the capacity of HIV-1 RT to polymerize nucleotides onto mispaired termini is a major factor in the production of mutations by this enzyme. When a noncomplementary dAMP was inserted opposite a template adenine by HIV-1 RT, the nascent 3'-terminal A.A mispair was readily extended by subsequent incorporation of the next complementary nucleotide. The frequencies of nucleotide addition onto 3'-terminal A-A, A-C, and A-G mispairs were determined by quantitating the amount of extended primers with a gel electrophoresis assay and by measuring mutagenesis after hybridization of mismatched primers opposite an amber mutation in bacteriophage phi X174 DNA. The mispair extension frequencies are approximately 50-fold higher by HIV-1 RT than by the mammalian replicative enzyme DNA polymerase alpha.

The cochleovestibular (CV) nerve, which connects the inner ear to the brain, is the nerve that enables the senses of hearing and balance. The aim of this study was to document the morphological development of the mouse CV nerve with respect to the two embryonic cells types that produce it, specifically, the otic vesicle-derived progenitors that give rise to neurons, and the neural crest cell (NCC) progenitors that give rise to glia. Otic tissues of mouse embryos carrying NCC lineage reporter transgenes were whole mount immunostained to identify neurons and NCC. Serial optical sections were collected by confocal microscopy and were compiled to render the three dimensional (3D) structure of the developing CV nerve. Spatial organization of the NCC and developing neurons suggest that neuronal and glial populations of the CV nerve develop in tandem from early stages of nerve formation. NCC form a sheath surrounding the CV ganglia and central axons. NCC are also closely associated with neurites projecting peripherally during formation of the vestibular and cochlear nerves. Physical ablation of NCC in chick embryos demonstrates that survival or regeneration of even a few individual NCC from ectopic positions in the hindbrain results in central projection of axons precisely following ectopic pathways made by regenerating NCC.