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When students require support to improve outcomes in a variety of domains, educators provide youth with school-based intervention. When educators require support to improve their professional practice, school leaders and support personnel (e.g., school psychologists) provide teachers with professional development (PD), consultation, and coaching. This multi-study article describes how the Assessment of Culturally and Contextually Relevant Supports (ACCReS) was developed with the purpose of assessment driving intervention for teachers in need of support to engage in culturally responsive practice. Items for the ACCReS were created via a multi-step process including review by both expert and practitioner panels. Then, results of an exploratory factor analysis with a national sample of U.S. teachers ( N = 500) in Study 1 yielded three subscales. A confirmatory factor analysis conducted with a separate sample of teachers ( N = 400) in Study 2 produced adequate model fit. In Study 3, analyses with another final sample of teachers ( N = 99) indicated preliminary evidence of convergent validity between the ACCReS and two measures of teacher self-efficacy of culturally responsive practice. Data from the ACCReS can shape the content of educator intervention (e.g., PD) and promote more equitable student outcomes for youth.

Teachers’ perceptions of high cultural responsiveness in the classroom may be related to positive behavioral outcomes (e.g., higher academic engagement, lower social risk), but little research has explored this possibility. This article addresses this research gap by building upon findings from a preliminary paper in which these relationships were evidenced. Specifically, we present two interrelated follow-up studies. Study 1 examined the relationship between ratings of 20 U.S. teachers on a measure of cultural responsiveness, the Double Check Self-Refection Tool, and students’ observed classroom behavior. Results from multilevel modeling indicated that higher Double Check scores significantly predicted higher academic engagement and lower disruptive behavior for 454 students observed. Study 2 investigated the relationship between ratings of 30 U.S. teachers on the Double Check Self-Refection Tool and ratings of 622 students’ risk on the Social, Academic, and Emotional Behavior Risk Screener (SAEBRS). Results indicated higher Double Check scores were associated with lower ratings of students’ social and emotional risk. Findings also indicated identification as a Black student and a student with a disability predicted teachers’ perceptions of higher risk, consistent with previous research. As results remain preliminary, implications include recommendations for additional research and high-quality professional development to promote teachers’ cultural responsiveness.

For decades, racially and ethnically minoritized youth have been subject to unequal distributions of access and opportunity in school, leading to inequities in academic outcomes. Educators require knowledge and skills to provide relevant instruction and create a more supportive, effective classroom environment. This systematic review includes 24 qualitative and quantitative studies in which researchers investigated a culturally responsive classroom intervention or practice to promote academic outcomes for racially and ethnically minoritized youth. Within these studies, authors described several approaches to promote academic success: (a) developing authentic partnerships with families, (b) using effective pedagogy with students’ culture infused, and (c) accessing rigorous professional development. In addition, studies were assessed for methodological quality, and qualitative works met design standards more often than the quantitative studies reviewed. Implications include the need for additional research to inform comprehensive support for educators to design effective instructional environments for all students, especially those who have historically encountered systemic barriers in school.

Despite widespread implementation of multitiered systems of support for behavior (MTSS-B), evidence of racial discipline disproportionality persists. We argue MTSS-B must prioritize racial equity a...

Daily report card (DRC) intervention provides a structured method for increasing communication between teachers and parents regarding student behavior; however, limited research has investigated the effectiveness and acceptability of DRC intervention with preschool students. Additionally, effectiveness of DRC intervention is enhanced when parents provide consistent reinforcement for students’ goal attainment. The purposes of the study were to (a) extend DRC intervention to examine effectiveness and acceptability with preschool students and (b) evaluate the impact of proactive antecedent e-mail prompts on home intervention integrity (i.e., parents’ provision of contingent reinforcement). DRC intervention was implemented in a multiple-baseline-across-subjects design for 3 preschool students to evaluate impacts of (a) the intervention on classroom engagement and disruptive behavior measured via systematic direct observation and (b) proactive antecedent e-mail prompts on parents’ home intervention integrity. Although DRC intervention resulted in negligible level changes in student engagement and disruptive behavior, variability of disruptive behavior reduced following intervention. Antecedent e-mail prompts did not improve home intervention integrity due to high baseline levels (i.e., ceiling effects). Finally, parents and teachers found DRC intervention to be feasible and appropriate for preschool. Limitations of the study and implications for expanding DRC intervention to preschool are discussed.

Results from research indicate writing is a critical skill linked to several academic outcomes. To promote improvements in writing quantity and quality, intervention might target increasing students' academic engagement during time designated to practice writing. The purpose of this study was to implement an evidence-based classwide behavioral intervention, the Good Behavior Game (GBG), during daily writing practice time in two classrooms. Participants (n = 45) included students in a Grade 1 and Grade 2 class enrolled in an elementary school in a large suburb in the northeast U.S. Findings based on visual analysis and multilevel modeling indicate that students, on average, wrote more words (quantity) and more correct writing sequences (quality) when the GBG was played versus when it was not. Implications include the need for replication studies to extend findings and explore how school psychologists might consider the use of behavioral interventions to promote improved engagement and academic output in the classroom. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The Assessment of Culturally and Contextually Relevant Supports (ACCReS) was developed in response to the need for well-constructed instruments to measure teachers’ cultural responsiveness and guide decision-making related to professional development needs. The current study sought to evaluate the presence of differential item functioning (DIF) in ACCReS items and the magnitude of DIF, if detected. With a national sample of 999 grade K-12 teachers in the United States, we examined measurement invariance of ACCReS items in relation to responses from (a) racially and ethnically minoritized (REM) youth and white teachers (teacher race), (b) teachers in schools with 0–50% and 51–100% REM youth (student race), and (c) teachers with 5 years of experience. Findings suggested that ACCReS items exhibited negligible levels of DIF. The lack of DIF found provides additional evidence for the validity of scores from the ACCReS to assess teachers’ cultural responsiveness. Furthermore, descriptive analyses revealed that teachers were more likely to agree with items pertaining to their own classroom practice than items related to access to adequate training and support. Results inform implications for future educational and measurement research.

School discipline disproportionality has long been documented in educational research, primarily impacting Black/African American and non-White Hispanic/Latinx students. In response, federal policymakers have encouraged educators to change their disciplinary practice, emphasizing that more proactive support is critical to promoting students’ social and behavioral outcomes in school. Results from a literature review conducted nearly a decade ago indicated that there was, at that point, a paucity of empirical research related to considering students’ culture (e.g., race, ethnicity) and supporting school behavior. The purpose of this study is to replicate and expand the previous review to summarize the characteristics of the most recent school-based quantitative research addressing interventions to promote social and behavioral outcomes for racially and ethnically minoritized youth. We screened 1687 articles for inclusion in the review. Upon coding 32 eligible research studies, we found that intervention and implementer characteristics within these studies varied, but noted strong intervention effects in studies that included established evidence-based practices, adapted interventions, as well as new practices piloted with student participants. Results inform recommendations to continue to study interventions that promote positive social and behavioral outcomes for racially and ethnically minoritized students to disrupt a long history of subjection to exclusionary discipline disproportionately.

The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has led to many students receiving remote instruction. As educators support students’ learning and behavior from a distance, school psychologists can utilize the...

Although social-emotional learning is associated with long-term success in school and careers, it is often a missing link in U.S. public education. The COVID-19 pandemic has intensified the need for social-emotional supports for children. In this time of crisis, educators have also sought new ways to make connections and reimagined how students might actively learn with each other. Kristin Murphy, Amy Cook, & Lindsay Fallon discuss what they have learned about using mixed reality simulations to facilitate social-emotional learning with children and what makes this technology a promising active learning tool.

Issues of equity, access, and social justice in educational settings have received increased attention in the educational and psychological literature over the past several years, though there is s...

The health, economic, and social challenges associated with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) present a range of threats to students' well-being, psychoeducational experiences, and outcomes, spurring fears for a "lost generation." In this article, we present COVID-19 as a large-scale multisystemic disaster causing massive disruptions and losses, with adversities moderated by the intersectional nature of systemic inequity. We first synthesize the broad effects of COVID-19 as they relate to equity and social justice, followed by the major implications for students and schools, with a focus on intersectional systemic issues. We then propose foundational considerations and resources intended to usher a paradigm shift in how school psychologists' roles and activities are conceptualized in the years to come, ending with key imperatives for practice and graduate education in school psychology. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The impact of the Good Behavior Game (GBG) on students’ classroom behavior has been studied for 50 years. What is less established is the impact of the GBG on students’ academic progress. With emerging research in curriculum-based measurement for written expression (WE-CBM), it may be possible to observe changes in students’ writing output while playing the GBG versus when the game is not played. The purpose of the current study was to systematically introduce the GBG during writing practice time in a Grade 1 and Grade 2 classroom, and observe any changes to all students’ academic engagement, disruptive behavior, as well as target students’ writing output using WE-CBM. Results indicated large increases in all students’ academic engagement and decreases in disruptive behavior when the GBG was played. For writing output, target students demonstrated modest improvement in the amount of words written and accuracy of writing when the game was played, especially students identified as having emerging writing skills. Future studies might continue to empirically explore the connection between behavioral intervention and academic output by replicating study procedures in different contexts and/or with alternative WE-CBM indices.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other developmental disabilities may benefit from home-based interventions to promote positive, prosocial behavior. Frequently, a practitioner (e.g., behavior analyst) provides training and support to parents to achieve behavior change. When this occurs, progress-monitoring data pertaining to both treatment fidelity and child outcomes are important to deciding if supports delivered are effective. Yet, little is known about treatment fidelity assessment in this setting. In the current study, behavior analysts working across the United States in homes ( n = 314) were surveyed. Results indicate that nearly all participants reported having received some or extensive training on the importance of treatment fidelity. Most respondents also indicated that treatment fidelity is assessed in at least 30% of sessions in homes when working with parents, primarily by means of direct observation versus indirect methods. Implications for future consultation research and the practice are provided.

Treatment fidelity data are critical to evaluate intervention effectiveness, yet there are only general guidelines regarding treatment fidelity measurement. Initial investigations have found treatment fidelity data collected via direct observation to be more reliable than data collected via permanent product or self-report. However, the comparison of assessment methods is complicated by the intervention steps accounted for, observation timing, and intervention sessions accounted for, which may impact treatment fidelity estimates. In this study, we compared direct observation and permanent product data to evaluate these varied assessment and data collection decisions on treatment fidelity data estimates in three classrooms engaged in a group contingency intervention. Findings revealed that treatment fidelity estimates, in addition to being different across assessment method, are, in fact, different depending on the intervention steps assessed, intervention sessions accounted for, and observation timing. Implications for treatment fidelity assessment research, reporting in intervention research broadly, and implementation assessment in practice are described.

Although there are many definitions of a high-need (or high-risk) school, typically researchers and policy makers agree it is a setting in which a vast percentage of students are (a) living in econ...

“Systems-Level Collaboration” discusses empirically-based approaches to providing systemic supports throughout school settings, with the goal of ensuring that students receive services that are responsive to their needs. The range of available supports are considered with the needs of students with ASD in mind, beginning with Tier 1, universally effective practices, and ending with Tier 3, intensive, individualized interventions. Staff support needs when considering systems-wide change are discussed, and implementation support strategies that can be effective in ensuring that staff are ready to deliver and sustain new practices. The “Focus on Culture” section examines how systems-level supports can be designed and adapted to ensure that they are inclusive and supportive of all learners.

Children experiencing behavioral challenges often receive interventions and supports across a variety of settings (e.g., home, school). Treatment fidelity data are critical to intervention decision-making, yet there has been more research related to assessing treatment fidelity in school settings than in home environments. Understanding the extent to which interventions are implemented at home, and the quality of such interventions, is important when monitoring wraparound supports delivered by comprehensive teams. Below, we describe ways in which treatment fidelity may be assessed and present results from a survey administered to a sample of behavioral consultants (N = 314) working in home settings to support children. Questions were based on a survey administered to school psychologists by Cochrane and Laux (2008) and addressed consultants’ treatment fidelity assessment and promotion practices in homes. Findings indicated that consultants (a) assess treatment fidelity with varying frequency, (b) most often use direct observation, and (c) deliver many treatment fidelity promotion strategies when monitoring individuals providing direct support to children in the home. Based on the results, we include recommendations for school psychologists who support teams implementing wraparound supports, particularly to address students exhibiting skill deficits manifested in behavioral challenges.

Treatment fidelity assessment is critical to evaluating the extent to which interventions, such as the Good Behavior Game, are implemented as intended and impact student outcomes. The assessment methods by which treatment fidelity data are collected vary, with direct observation being the most popular and widely recommended. The current study presents an exploratory analysis of the differences between fidelity estimates collected through direct observation versus permanent product across three dimensions of treatment fidelity: adherence, quality, and exposure. Findings indicate that direct observation may allow for a more complete estimate of adherence when compared with permanent product, if implementation occurs within the observation window. Quality was only captured via direct observation. Direct observation may not produce adequate estimates of exposure depending on implementation timing. Implications for treatment fidelity assessment are reviewed.

Although high levels of intervention implementation are more likely to lead to improved student outcomes, educators struggle to maintain high implementation levels over time. School psychologists m...

To evaluate students’ responsiveness to an intervention, both student outcome and implementer treatment integrity data are needed. Teachers are often asked to self-report treatment integrity data. However, when self-report responses are compared with those from a direct observer, it is apparent that teachers commonly overestimate the extent to which an intervention was implemented as planned. As such, more research related to teacher self-report to assess treatment integrity is needed. The objective of this preliminary single-case multiple-baseline design study was to improve interrater agreement between observers’ and teachers’ self-report ratings of treatment integrity by providing teachers with comprehensive, direct training (including an intervention description, modeling, practice, and feedback). Results indicate that after this training, agreement between observers’ and teachers’ ratings of treatment integrity improved.

For evidence-based interventions to be effective for students they must be consistently implemented, however, many teachers struggle with treatment integrity and require support. Although many implementation support strategies are research based, there is little empirical guidance about the types of treatment integrity, implementers, and contexts these strategies are best suited to address. To facilitate the data-driven identification of implementation supports, treatment integrity and the implementation context could be evaluated through an applied behavior analysis (ABA) lens. That is, teachers’ engagement in intervention implementation or competing behaviors could be considered to be occasioned by antecedents (e.g., prompts, setting) and maintained by consequences (e.g., escape intervention, access to attention). This article describes the conceptualization of treatment integrity within an antecedent-behavior-consequence framework. The current landscape and limitations of school-based treatment integrity research are reviewed and the application of ABA technology to address implementer behavior is described. Further, the article provides practical strategies for how school psychologists might apply this conceptualization to support teachers. A case study is provided to illustrate associated research-based strategies. Last, implications and limitations are described.

As public schools in the U.S. are becoming increasingly culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD), there has been an effort to generate empirical support for culturally responsive practices in schools to promote a variety of positive outcomes for children (e.g., behavioral health, mental health, academic achievement). School psychologists can assist with the delivery of culturally responsive practices based on their specialized training and expertise. For students with intensive needs, particularly for mental and behavioral health concerns, a wraparound service delivery model may be appropriate. Although resource-intensive, wraparound supports emphasize collaborative relationships between stakeholders. It aligns well with the provision of positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS), a comprehensive, coordinated framework to promote behavior regulation and increase displays of positive, prosocial behavior. The purpose of this paper is to provide a description of culturally responsive wraparound supports and present data from a preliminary case study. Specifically, the process of developing and implementing a family behavior support plan with a family in the northeast who recently emigrated from Puerto Rico is described. Implications for practice and research are discussed.

Training psychologists to engage in advocacy and social justice is critical to professional development. Scholars recommend a variety of methods to accomplish this training. One approach is to offer goal-driven instruction that aligns with a clear mission, a safe and supportive environment for constructive dialogue, and the opportunity to engage in experiential learning. Experiential learning opportunities may be most impactful if structured as a longitudinal process; however, few practical training examples exist to demonstrate such a procedure. The purpose of this article is to offer a structured, longitudinal training demonstration of psychology doctoral trainees engaged in social justice and advocacy work at a midsize, diverse urban public university. This multiyear effort included (a) a comprehensive needs assessment; (b) qualitative interviews and focus groups with students and staff; and (c) supporting the development and coordination of care at a campus center to address student housing instability, food insecurity, and other critical needs. Implications of this work on advocacy in public service settings are described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Tier I interventions are implemented on a school-wide or class-wide level and are intended to limit the development of problem behaviors. This chapter describes the preventive focus and emphasis on efficiency of these strategies, provides specific progress monitoring assessments, and introduces general issues related to classroom management. The approach of school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports (SWPBIS) is defined, and essential elements of systems, practices, data, outcomes, and building readiness are described. Next, class-wide PBIS procedures are discussed in terms of developing routines, rules, and expectations, acknowledgment of appropriate behaviors, and responding to problem behaviors. Finally, Tier I interventions in other educational settings (e.g., hallway, cafeteria) are discussed.

The research base for Check-in, Check-out (CICO), a targeted behavioral intervention within a schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports framework, is growing. However, little has been written about its application in therapeutic alternative programs. To extend the literature base, the current article describes a study conducted using an applied multiple baseline single-case research design involving three students with emotional disabilities enrolled in a therapeutic alternative education program. Overall, results indicate that improvements in the three participants' targeted behaviors were noted following intervention. Treatment fidelity and social validity data indicate that CICO steps were implemented as intended and were perceived as acceptable, understandable, and feasible. Implications for research and practice are described.

Prior research has suggested Check-In/Check-Out (CICO) effectiveness is linked to the function of problem behavior. Though effective for students whose misbehavior occurs to gain attention, findings are equivocal for behavior that occurs to escape academic tasks. The purpose of this study was to therefore evaluate a modification to CICO, wherein students were permitted to escape portions of a supplemental assignment contingent upon appropriate behavior. Participants included two elementary students, both of whom were exposed to three conditions as part of an alternating treatments single-case design, including baseline, traditional CICO, and CICO-escape. Visual and statistical analyses indicated that relative to both baseline and traditional CICO, the modified CICO procedure was moderately to highly effective in promoting academic engagement and decreasing disruptive behavior for both students.

Collecting treatment integrity data is critical for (a) strengthening internal validity within a research study, (b) determining the impact of an intervention on student outcomes, and (c) assessing the need for implementation supports. Although researchers have noted the increased inclusion of treatment integrity data in published articles, there has been limited attention to how treatment integrity is assessed. The purpose of this study was to review how treatment integrity is typically assessed in single-case design performance feedback articles. Doctoral students in school psychology coded 58 performance feedback studies to determine how treatment integrity data are assessed in this literature, and common intervention characteristics linked to treatment integrity assessment. Findings indicate that, although data were collected most frequently via direct observation by a researcher targeting intervention adherence, intervention characteristics varied widely across studies. Implications of results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Behavioral interventions delivered across home and school settings can promote positive outcomes for youth with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Yet, stakeholders who deliver these interventions may struggle to implement interventions as intended. Low levels of treatment integrity can undermine potentially positive intervention outcomes. One way to promote implementers' treatment integrity is Implementation Planning, a logistical planning and barrier reduction strategy that is supported by emerging school-based research. The current study extended the research on Implementation Planning and evaluated the effectiveness of the strategy with parents implementing a behavioral intervention at home within a Conjoint Behavioral Consultation model. The behavioral intervention aimed to increase compliance and decrease aggression for two children with ASD at home. Initially, parents struggled to deliver the intervention consistently; however, after Implementation Planning, parents' treatment integrity increased and...

Given the increased interest and implementation of Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS) systems in schools in the United States, practitioners and researchers have become interested in how to improve implementation with students and staff from a wide range of cultural backgrounds. Fallon, O'Keeffe, and Sugai (2012) reviewed the literature on behavior supports and culture and developed a list of recommended practices. To collect information on the perceived acceptability, feasibility, and efficacy of these practices, as well as accessibility to professional development on specific practices, we surveyed school staff members involved in SWPBS implementation across the country. Respondents (n = 330) indicated generally high agreement with the acceptability, feasibility, efficacy, and accessibility of training of culturally and contextually relevant SWPBS recommendations. Variations in these responses are discussed, and recommendations for research and practice are presented.

Optimal levels of treatment fidelity, a critical moderator of intervention effectiveness, are often difficult to sustain in applied settings. It is unknown whether performance feedback, a widely researched method for increasing educators’ treatment fidelity, is an evidence-based practice. The purpose of this review was to evaluate the current research on performance feedback as a strategy to promote the implementation of school-based practices. Studies were evaluated according to What Works Clearinghouse (WWC; Kratochwill et al., 2010) technical guidelines for single-case design, utilizing both the design and evidence standards to determine whether studies provided sufficient evidence for the effectiveness of performance feedback. Results indicate that performance feedback can be termed an evidence-based intervention based on criteria set by the WWC. Implications for future research are described.

In consultation, school psychologists may offer educators direct training to support the implementation of classroom interventions aimed to improve student outcomes. The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic literature review of single-case design research studies during which educators received direct training to implement a classroom intervention, specifically instructions, modeling, practice, and feedback. Two doctoral students in school psychology screened 228 articles and evaluated 33 studies to determine if direct training is effective and an evidence-based practice per single-case design standards proposed by the What Works Clearinghouse. Results of the review indicate that there is support for the practice to be deemed evidence-based and associated with better intervention implementation than before its application. Implications include direct training being considered for intensive, complex interventions to promote educator success with implementation. (PsycINFO Database Record

Teachers struggle to maintain high levels of treatment integrity, which are associated with efficient improvements in student outcomes. To address this challenge, school psychologists can provide implementation support, such as prompts or performance feedback, to increase teachers' treatment integrity when it is low. Implementation prompts are an emerging implementation support having been investigated in one previous study, but are feasible and require little time to provide. Performance feedback is an evidence-based practice, but requires more time for school psychologists to coordinate and deliver. The current study sought to compare the emailed delivery of prompts and performance feedback directly. Three elementary school teachers from a diverse setting participated with their students in this experimental multiple baseline single-case design research study. Teachers were trained to implement a classwide group contingency intervention and, when treatment integrity was low, received prompts and then performance feedback. Direct observation of treatment integrity and classwide behavior indicated that performance feedback was slightly more effective at increasing treatment integrity, but implementation prompts were modestly effective, took less time to provide, and were viewed as more acceptable by teachers. Furthermore, student outcomes (academic engagement and disruptive behavior) were relatively stable across the emailed prompts and performance feedback phases, suggesting the supports were similarly effective. Future research might further investigate these findings and continue to build the research base for implementation supports to promote treatment integrity.

Performance feedback (PF) is an empirically supported method of increasing teachers' treatment adherence. In the evaluations of PF to date, however, PF was delivered by someone external to the school. The primary purpose of this case study was to provide an exploratory evaluation of the effectiveness and feasibility of PF when delivered by a school-based consultant to teachers implementing a classwide behavioral intervention. Teacher treatment adherence and student outcomes were also evaluated. Results indicate that overall, (a) teachers demonstrated moderate-to-high, but variable, levels of treatment adherence; (b) when teachers demonstrated lower levels of treatment adherence, the school-based consultant implemented PF with high adherence for 5 weeks, after which adherence varied; and (c) student outcomes improved.

The number of schools implementing school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) practices nationwide is increasing, but still little is known about the fidelity with which teachers implement SWPBS practices in the classroom. Specifically, data are needed that reflect the consistency with which classroom-based SWPBS practices are implemented, as well as challenges to implementation faced by school personnel, to ensure the best possible behavioral and academic outcomes for students. In this study, personnel in Connecticut schools implementing SWPBS (N = 171) were surveyed, and results indicate that although classroom-based SWPBS practices are implemented very consistently by the majority of respondents, certain practices are somewhat challenging to implement. Implications for improving practice and training are offered.

When implementing behavioral interventions in educational settings, some implementers need support to maintain high levels of treatment integrity. Performance feedback has a large body of research supporting it as a strategy for improving teachers’ implementation of classroom interventions. However, in most prior studies, performance feedback has been delivered by a researcher, not by a school staff member, which limits generalizability of results to applied settings. In this study, school personnel (i.e., internal consultants) assessed teachers’ treatment integrity when implementing a classwide behavioral intervention and, when low, provided performance feedback. Further, researchers assessed internal consultants’ treatment integrity and provided performance feedback as needed. Results indicate that internal consultants are able to assess and briefly increase teachers’ treatment integrity with performance feedback, although some teachers needed more support than did others. Likewise, internal consultants’ treatment integrity was fairly high initially, but required consistent performance feedback to increase treatment integrity levels toward the end of the study. Implications for research and practice are discussed.