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The lowland region of Sumatra Barat has received little attention in previous biodiversity studies. Past studies have mainly focused on highland habitat and conservation areas. However, many populations of Cyrtodactylus in the lowland habitats of Sumatra Barat were not correctly identified. A phylogenetic tree based on the NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 (ND2) gene showed that the lowland Sumatran population is the sister group of the Malaysian lowland species, C. semenanjungensis, together nesting within the agamensis group. The genetic divergence within the Sumatra Barat population is 0–4.2% and 18.3–20% to C. semenanjungensis. Further examination of morphological characters revealed that they differed from the sister clade and other Sumatran Cyrtodactylus members by a unique combination of characters such as absence of tubercle on brachium, presence of tubercle on ventrolateral fold, 32–41 paravertebral tubercles, 38–46 ventral scales, enlarged femoral scales, presence of precloacofemoral pores and 22–23 subdigital lamellae under fourth toe. Based on the morphological and molecular evidence, the lowland Sumatran population is herein described as a new species, increasing the number of species in Sumatra to seven. More comprehensive and intensive sampling efforts would most likely yield further discoveries in the group of Sumatran Cyrtodactylus in the near future.

Among the six species of Cyrtodactylus occurring in Sumatra, two species were described based on non-Sumatran type series, C. consobrinus and C. quadrivirgatus. The latter species was described originally from Thailand thus the wider distribution in Sumatra should be clarified taxonomically. Cyrtodactylus quadrivirgatus from Sumatra Barat was examined using both morphology and the Natrium Dehydrogenase Subunit 2 (ND2) gene to clarify its taxonomic status and phylogenetic placement. It was found that these specimens form a sister clade to all other species of the sworderi group from Peninsular Malaysia and the genetic distance ranges from 20–24.3%. This subset is herein described as a new species. The new species is readily distinguished from C. quadrivirgatus and other Sumatran species by a combination of characters: small size SVL 37.5–53.78 mm; longitudinal rows of dorsal tubercles 16–19; paravertebral tubercles 31–41; ventral scales 32–43; 24–49 enlarged precloacal and femoral scales; precloacal pores rarely present; no precloacal depression; two postcloacal tubercles on each side; 14–19 subdigital lamellae on forth toe; 9–15 supralabial scales; 9–12 infralabial scales; three or four internasal scales; and 3–6 gular scales that border the first pair of postmental scales. This work underscores the importance of clarifying widely distributed species for taxonomic validation.

Hynobius sonani (Maki, 1922) Salamandrella sonani Maki, 1922: 636. Hynobius sonani Dunn, 1923: 479 (part); Maki, 1928: 129; Okada, 1934: 18 (part); Okada, 1935: 581; Takashima, 1936: 22 (part); Sato, 1937: 38; Sato, 1943: 243 (part); Fei et al., 2006: 151 (part). Pseudosalamandra sonani Tago, 1929: 431 (part); Tago, 1931: 197 (part). Hynobius formosanus Sato, 1941: 119 (part); Lai & Lue, 2008: 63; Fei et al., 2010: 43. Hynobius (Poyarius) formosanus Dubois & Raffa��lli, 2012: 137. Hynobius (Makihynobius) formosanus Fei, Ye & Jiang, 2012: 45. Neotype. NMNS 19872 (former NTUNB 165701): Male; Zhuifen, Nantou, Taiwan; collected by J.-S. Lai on March 9 th, 2001 Original type locality: Mount Noko, Taichu-shu; altitude about 10,000 feet; collected by J. Sonan on May 1919. Diagnosis: A moderate-sized species (mean adult SVL = 53.0 mm in male and 52.4 mm in female: Lai & Lue 2008) within the lotic breeding Hynobius, breeding in mountainous streams; dorsum dark brown with yellow to yellowish brown spots or dots; limbs and tail short; tips of fore- and hindlimbs adpressed on body scarcely meeting (separation of -3.0 costal folds in male and -3.0 to -2.5 in female); no fifth toe in external view (analysis of phalangeal elements of skeleton pending); ova large, pigmentless; egg sacs long and string-like, lighter longitudinal stripes than H. formosanus, without distinct whiptail structure on free end (Kakegawa et al. 1989); most similar to H. fuca among Taiwanese species, but with larger and more robust body, and larger markings (H. fuca has white dots); distinctly different from parapatric H. formosanus in having smaller markings and shorter limbs and H. glacialis in having smaller body and shorter limbs and tail., Published as part of Nishikawa, Kanto, Ju, Yu-Ten, Jheng, Sheng-Wun, Lin, You-Zhu, Hara, Sotaro, Lai, June-Shiang, Lin, Si-Min & Lue, Kuang-Yang, 2021, Taxonomic clarification and neotype designation of two Taiwanese salamanders (Amphibia, Urodela, Hynobiidae), pp. 188-196 in Zootaxa 4981 (1) on page 193, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4981.1.11, http://zenodo.org/record/4897537, {"references":["Maki, M. (1922) Notes on the salamanders found in the Island of Formosa. Zoological magazine, 34, 635 - 639.","Dunn, E. R. (1923) The salamanders of the family Hynobiidae. Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 58, 445 - 523. https: // doi. org / 10.2307 / 20026019","Maki, M. (1928) Notes on salamanders from Formosa. Annotationes zoologicae Japonenses, 11, 129 - 133.","Okada, Y. (1934) A contribution toward a check list of the urodeles of Japan. Copeia, 1934, 16 - 19. https: // doi. org / 10.2307 / 1436428","Okada, Y. (1935) Summary of taxonomy and distribution of Japanese salamanders. Zoological magazine, 47, 575 - 588.","Takashima, H. (1936) List of the tailed batrachians of Japan. The Magazine of Natural History, 34 59, 17 - 25.","Sato, I. (1937) Order Caudata. Fauna Japonica. Vol. XV (I). Sanseido, Tokyo, 74 pp.","Sato, I. (1943) Monograph of the Tailed Batrachians of Japan. Nippon Shuppan-sha, Osaka, 520 pp.","Fei, L., Hu, S. - Q., Ye, C. - Y. & Huan, Y. - Z. (2006) Fauna Sinica Amphibia, Vol. 1. Beijing Science Press, Beijing, 471 pp.","Tago, K. (1929) Tailed batrachia of Japan. Zoological magazine, 41, 430 - 432.","Tago, K. (1931) Newt and Salamander. Maruzen Co, Tokyo, 210 pp.","Sato, I. (1941) The salamanders of Formosa. Trans. Natural History Society of Formosa, 31, 114 - 124.","Lai, J. - S. & Lue, K. - Y. (2008) Two new Hynobius (Caudata: Hynobiidae) salamanders from Taiwan. Herpetologica, 64, 63 - 80. https: // doi. org / 10.1655 / 06 - 065.1","Fei, L., Ye, C. - Y. & Jiang, J. - P. (2010) Colored Atlas of Chinese Amphibians. Sichuan Publishing House of Science & Technology, Sichuan, 519 pp.","Dubois, A. & Raffaelli, J. (2012) A new ergotaxonomy of the order Urodela Dumeril, 1805 (Amphibia, Batrachia). Alytes, 28, 77 - 161.","Fei, L., Ye, C. - Y. & Jiang, J. - P. (2012) Colored Atlas of Chinese Amphibians and Their Distributions. Sichuan Publishing House of Science & Technology, Sichuan, 620 pp.","Kakegawa, M., Iizuka, K. & Kuzumi, S. (1989) Morphology of egg sacs and larvae just after hatching in Hynobius sonani and H. formosanus from Taiwan, with an analysis of skeletal muscle protein compositions. In: Matsui, M., Hikida, T. & Goris, R. C. (Eds.), Current Herpetology in East Asia. Herpetological Society of Japan, Kyoto, pp. 147 - 155."]}

Hynobius formosanus Maki, 1922 Hynobius formosanus Maki, 1922: 637; Maki, 1928: 131; Okada, 1934: 18 (part); Okada, 1935: 581 (part); Sato, 1937: 38 (part); Fei et al., 2006: 148. Hynobius sonani Dunn, 1923: 479 (part); Takashima, 1936: 22 (part) Sato, 1941: 115; Sato, 1943: 97 (part). Pseudosalamandra sonani Tago, 1929: 431 (part); Tago, 1931: 197 (part). Hynobius sonani Lai & Lue, 2008: 63; Fei et al., 2010: 47. Hynobius (Poyarius) sonani Dubois & Raffa��lli, 2012: 137. Hynobius (Makihynobius) sonani Fei, Ye & Jiang, 2012: 48. Neotype. NMNS 19873 (former NTUNB L118): Male; Tianchi, Nantou, Taiwan, collected by J.-S. Lai on August 26 th, 1995. Original type locality: Oiwake, Taichu-shu; altitude about 7,000 feet; collected by J. Sonan on May 1919. Diagnosis: A moderate-sized species (mean adult SVL = 56.8 mm in male and 58.4 mm in female: Lai & Lue 2008) within the lotic breeding Hynobius, breeding in mountainous streams; dorsum dark brown with yellow to yellowish brown spots or dots; limbs and tail long; tips of fore- and hindlimbs adpressed on body scarcely meeting (separation of -2.0 to -1.0 costal folds in male and -2.0 in female); fifth toe well developed; ova large, pigmentless; egg sacs long and string-like, weakly striated, without distinct whiptail structure on free end (Kakegawa et al.1989); most similar to H. sonani among Taiwanese species, but with larger and more robust body, longer limbs, and larger markings; distinctly different from parapatric H. sonani in having larger markings and longer limbs and H. glacialis in having smaller body and shorter limbs and tail., Published as part of Nishikawa, Kanto, Ju, Yu-Ten, Jheng, Sheng-Wun, Lin, You-Zhu, Hara, Sotaro, Lai, June-Shiang, Lin, Si-Min & Lue, Kuang-Yang, 2021, Taxonomic clarification and neotype designation of two Taiwanese salamanders (Amphibia, Urodela, Hynobiidae), pp. 188-196 in Zootaxa 4981 (1) on page 194, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4981.1.11, http://zenodo.org/record/4897537, {"references":["Maki, M. (1922) Notes on the salamanders found in the Island of Formosa. Zoological magazine, 34, 635 - 639.","Maki, M. (1928) Notes on salamanders from Formosa. Annotationes zoologicae Japonenses, 11, 129 - 133.","Okada, Y. (1934) A contribution toward a check list of the urodeles of Japan. Copeia, 1934, 16 - 19. https: // doi. org / 10.2307 / 1436428","Okada, Y. (1935) Summary of taxonomy and distribution of Japanese salamanders. Zoological magazine, 47, 575 - 588.","Sato, I. (1937) Order Caudata. Fauna Japonica. Vol. XV (I). Sanseido, Tokyo, 74 pp.","Fei, L., Hu, S. - Q., Ye, C. - Y. & Huan, Y. - Z. (2006) Fauna Sinica Amphibia, Vol. 1. Beijing Science Press, Beijing, 471 pp.","Dunn, E. R. (1923) The salamanders of the family Hynobiidae. Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 58, 445 - 523. https: // doi. org / 10.2307 / 20026019","Takashima, H. (1936) List of the tailed batrachians of Japan. The Magazine of Natural History, 34 59, 17 - 25.","Sato, I. (1941) The salamanders of Formosa. Trans. Natural History Society of Formosa, 31, 114 - 124.","Sato, I. (1943) Monograph of the Tailed Batrachians of Japan. Nippon Shuppan-sha, Osaka, 520 pp.","Tago, K. (1929) Tailed batrachia of Japan. Zoological magazine, 41, 430 - 432.","Tago, K. (1931) Newt and Salamander. Maruzen Co, Tokyo, 210 pp.","Lai, J. - S. & Lue, K. - Y. (2008) Two new Hynobius (Caudata: Hynobiidae) salamanders from Taiwan. Herpetologica, 64, 63 - 80. https: // doi. org / 10.1655 / 06 - 065.1","Fei, L., Ye, C. - Y. & Jiang, J. - P. (2010) Colored Atlas of Chinese Amphibians. Sichuan Publishing House of Science & Technology, Sichuan, 519 pp.","Dubois, A. & Raffaelli, J. (2012) A new ergotaxonomy of the order Urodela Dumeril, 1805 (Amphibia, Batrachia). Alytes, 28, 77 - 161.","Fei, L., Ye, C. - Y. & Jiang, J. - P. (2012) Colored Atlas of Chinese Amphibians and Their Distributions. Sichuan Publishing House of Science & Technology, Sichuan, 620 pp.","Kakegawa, M., Iizuka, K. & Kuzumi, S. (1989) Morphology of egg sacs and larvae just after hatching in Hynobius sonani and H. formosanus from Taiwan, with an analysis of skeletal muscle protein compositions. In: Matsui, M., Hikida, T. & Goris, R. C. (Eds.), Current Herpetology in East Asia. Herpetological Society of Japan, Kyoto, pp. 147 - 155."]}

Hsiao, Yu-Wei, Tseng, Hui-Yun, Nguyen, Hung Ngoc, Lin, Si-Min (2021): Asymmetric acoustic signal recognition led to asymmetric gene flow between two parapatric frogs. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 192 (1): 130, DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa114, URL: https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/192/1/130/5923795

In this electronic supplementary material, we provide detailed protocol for calculating the contrast of the lizards against the grass background using visual modelling of the egrets. We also provide a section discussing why temperature effect was excluded in this system. Relevant table (Table S1), figures (Figure S1 – S4) and references are provided.

Additional file 1: Table S1. A list of sample videos in each experimental stage; Table S2. The pseudo-randomized sequence of tests applied in Experiment 2; Table S3. Model selection for the quantitative ability of Asian freshwater turtles in Experiment 1; Table S4. Model selection for the quantitative ability of Asian freshwater turtles in Experiment 2.

Additional file 1: Figure S1. Monthly capture record of (a) adults; (b) juveniles; (c) recapture rates of all individuals; and (d) male/female composition (green/red) from May 2006 to August 2013. Figure S2. Sexual size dimorphism of Takydromus viridipunctatus.