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Eutrophication is a recurrent problem in water bodies, especially in tropical semiarid reservoirs. The trophic state index (TSI) is an important tool for the environmental management of aquatic systems. However, determining the TSI involves uncertainties that can affect decision-making. This study aimed to adapt and apply the fuzzy synthetic evaluation (FSE) to characterize the TSI considering the uncertainties of the reference eutrophication classification system. The Castanhão reservoir, the largest in the State of Ceará, Brazil, was taken as a case study. The results showed that (i) the uncertainty of the trophic classification system can be characterized by the triangular and trapezoidal membership functions; (ii) the result matrix associates the global trophic level with a degree of certainty, providing greater confidence to the decision maker; (iii) the eutrophication index (EI) is not an adequate tool for hierarchizing the trophic degree; and (iv) the membership level of the global trophic state generated by the FSE method is a suitable alternative to the EI. It is concluded that the proposed FSE model can be a useful tool for improving water resources management, especially in drylands., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG.)

In arid and semiarid environments, evaporation is responsible for significant water losses from reservoirs. This condition is of special concern in the Brazilian Northeast region, as this is one of the most populous semiarid areas in the planet. The present study aims to assess the spatio-temporal variability of evaporation rates on the water surface of Pentecoste reservoir, located in the Brazilian semiarid region, by using both the hydrodynamic model Delft3D and a remote sensing technique (RS). While RS has already been used to evaluate the spatial distribution of evaporation rates in lakes, Delft3D was innovatively tested and applied for this purpose for the first time in this study. The calibration results showed an accurate reproduction of the water level variability (r 2 of 0.997), along with a satisfactory calibration of the reservoir's thermal structure for the full water column (MAE of 0.539 °C, RMSE of 0.572 °C, and NMAE of 0.008). Curves relating monthly evaporation rates with air temperature and wind speed showed strong correlation between those variables (r 2 of 0.817 for air temperature and 0.849 for wind speed). Also, the averaged evaporation rates modeled by Delft3D differed by less than 5% compared to RS. Regarding the spatial distribution results, for the wet period the evaporation patterns were similar to those of RS, while in the dry period RS provided a more stable evaporation pattern when compared to Delft3D. The innovative approach proposed in the present study can be used to better understand the evaporation dynamics in surface waters and optimize the location of damping evaporation structures, namely air diffusers, shading systems, and floating solar panels, which are important for improving water availability, not only in drylands., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The dissolved oxygen (DO) level in the hypolimnion of lakes and reservoirs can reach anoxic conditions, which favor the release of phosphorus from the sediment bed to the water column. However, to estimate nutrient release from sediment is extremely important to quantify the duration of anoxia. In low latitude regions, the water-sediment layer is warmer than in temperate regions and eutrophication is usually more severe, potentially accelerating oxygen depletion and extending the anoxia period. Considering that the available equations to quantify the duration of anoxia were developed for temperate lakes, there is a need to effectively quantify this period in lakes and reservoirs located in other climate regions, such as the semiarid. In this study, the dynamics of thermal stratification was analyzed as a function of the Relative Water Column Stability coefficient (RWCS) and then correlated with DO dynamics for nineteen tropical semiarid reservoirs. RWCS values were higher during the rainy season, when anoxia duration was longer and the hypolimnion was thicker with respect to total water depth. Then, two new equations for quantification of anoxia duration, based on the equation originally developed for temperate climate, were adapted for the wet and dry seasons of the tropical semiarid region. The results showed that the proposed equations presented a better performance compared to the original one, which tends to underestimate anoxia in tropical semiarid reservoirs. This work intended to provide simple and locally adjusted tools to better quantify anoxic events and support the water quality and internal phosphorus load modeling for tropical semiarid reservoirs., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Climate variability and change, associated with increasing water demands, can have significant implications for water availability. In the Brazilian semi-arid, eutrophication in reservoirs raises the risk of water scarcity. The reservoirs have also a high seasonal and annual variability of water level and volume, which can have important effects on chlorophyll-a concentration (Chla). Assessing the influence of climate and hydrological variability on phytoplankton growth can be important to find strategies to achieve water security in tropical regions with similar problems. This study explores the potential of machine learning models to predict Chla in reservoirs and to understand their relationship with hydrological and climate variables. The model is based mainly on satellite data, which makes the methodology useful for data-scarce regions. Tree-based ensemble methods had the best performances among six machine learning methods and one parametric model. This performance can be considered satisfactory as classical empirical relationships between Chla and phosphorus may not hold for tropical reservoirs. Water volume and the mix-layer depth are inversely related to Chla, while mean surface temperature, water level, and surface solar radiation have direct relationships with Chla. These findings provide insights on how seasonal climate prediction and reservoir operation might influence water quality in regions supplied by superficial reservoirs., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

This study investigated the relationships between physical, limnological and climatic drivers with the internal total phosphorus (TP) loading produced over the dry period in 30 water supply reservoirs of the Brazilian semiarid. Improvements in the understanding of sedimentary TP fluxes in reservoirs of dryland regions are pressing as they usually have serious water quality related issues, remaining mostly eutrophic especially under frequent drought events. Gross daily fluxes and net seasonal average release rates were calculated from mass balance and regression equations considering water and sediment TP concentrations, anoxic duration, water temperature and fish contribution. Additionally, the ratio of wind speed to reservoir volume was proposed as a new surrogate and then applied as explanatory variable to predictive models. The results indicated TP release rates higher than reported for non-semiarid lakes/reservoirs with average gross fluxes ranging from 17.64 to 35.99 mg m -2 day -1 . This may be attributed to the enriched sediments (1029.49 ± 552.49 mg kg -1 ) allied with warmer water temperature, high trophic state, and prolonged anoxic periods (average duration of about 60 days). The average release rates were negatively correlated with water transparency and water depth, and positively correlated with Chl-a, wind speed and trophic state. The release rates increased across the trophic gradient (p < 0.05), about 10-fold higher under hypertrophic conditions than in oligotrophic ones. As anoxia is linked with eutrophication, phosphorus release is more likely in eutrophic ecosystems. Regarding the new surrogate, a strong predictive ability for TP release (R 2 : 0.26-0.93) was observed. Similarly, the proposed models presented a physically consistent behavior with a stabilizing releasing pattern suggesting the achievement of equilibrium in nutrient exchange between sediment-water interface. This research advanced by combining and proposing methods to assess and quantify sedimentary fluxes in data-scarce regions balancing accuracy and transferability, in order to be replicable to other dryland environments globally., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Nutrient accumulation in man-made reservoirs has been documented worldwide. Therefore, quantifying phosphorus loading and understanding its temporal dynamics in reservoirs is mandatory for sustainable water management. In this study, the Vollenweider's complete-mix phosphorus budget model was adapted to account for high water level variations, which are a common feature in tropical reservoirs, and for internal phosphorus loads. First- and zero-order kinetics were adopted to simulate phosphorus settling and release from the sediment layer, respectively, considering variable area of phosphorus release according to the height of the anoxic layer. The modeling approach was applied for a 52-months period to a 31-years-old reservoir located in the semiarid region of Brazil with 7.7 hm 3 storage capacity. The simulations were supported by hydrological, meteorological and water quality data, as well as analyses of phosphorus partitioning of the reservoir bed sediment. The external phosphorus load was estimated from a relationship adjusted between inflow and phosphorus concentration, revealing an u-shaped pattern. Sedimentary phosphorus linked to iron and aluminum (P FeAl ) increased over time and along the reservoir. Such measurements were used to estimate the internal phosphorus load, i.e., the yield from the bed sediments to the water column. The adaptations proposed to the model's structure improved its capacity to simulate phosphorus concentration in the water column, from "not satisfactory" to "good". We estimate that the internal phosphorus load currently accounts for 44% of the total load. It prevailed during the wet period, when reservoir stratification and hypolimnetic hypoxia were more notable, resulting in higher phosphorus concentration in the water column due to the combined effects of internal and external loadings. However, if the reservoir were 70 years older, the internal load would reach 83% of the total and the reservoir would become a source instead of a sink of phosphorus., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The dynamics of total phosphorus (TP) in 18 strategic reservoirs of the high-density reservoir network of the Brazilian semiarid was evaluated during the wet and dry periods for the past 12 years. Seasonal overlying concentrations presented no significant differences for about 90% of the reservoirs (p>0.05). This was attributed to a trade-off between the hydrological/limnological processes occurring in the two seasons. Then, a transient complete-mix mass balance model was applied with particular adaptations for the tropical semiarid reservoirs to estimate the TP load for each season. Because of the relatively well-mixed conditions and high hypolimnetic dissolved oxygen concentrations during the wet season, the wet load was assumed to represent the external TP load. On the other hand, because of the absence of reservoir inflow during the dry season, phosphorus release under anoxic sediment conditions and wind-induced resuspension under shallow water depths, the dry load was assumed to reflect the internal TP load. The maximum external loads were related to peak inflows, notably after drought periods. Consistently, the largest internal loads were obtained during the drought periods, when the reservoirs were shallower and more prone to phosphorus release and resuspension. By comparing the impact of the two input load types, the wet period load was predominant in 72% of the reservoirs. The areal phosphorus loads ranged from 0.66 to 7.29 gP m 2 year -1 , which were consistent with the literature, despite the very high density of reservoirs. Finally, power-law curves including data for all studied reservoirs were adjusted between the dry period load and volume, dry and wet period loads, wet period load and inflow, and total load and catchment area, resulting in satisfactory R 2 (0.84-0.98)., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Hydrological data and total phosphorus (TP) concentration at reservoirs' outlet were combined in a transient complete-mix model to obtain mean input loads and inlet concentration-flow relationships. This approach was designed to investigate the issue of phosphorus pollution in semiarid regions with intermittent rivers. The methodology was applied for twenty reservoirs in the State of Ceará, Brazilian semiarid. The modeled TP loads correlated well (R 2  = 0.74) with reference loads estimated from environmental inventories, with only 10% of underestimated results. The average input loads per unit area of the catchments ranged from about 4 to 40 kg km -2 yr -1 , which were considerably lower than the national average of about 500 kg km -2 yr -1 . This was attributed to lower precipitation indexes, intermittent river regime and a high-density reservoir network, peculiar of the Brazilian semiarid. Meanwhile, the input load per unit area of a small and highly populated urban catchment, with higher precipitation indexes and deficient sanitation was substantially higher (2626 kg km -2 yr -1 ). Moreover, the fitted TP concentration-flow relationships directly reflected different TP input sources: strong u-shaped behavior marked the curves of highly non-point source dominated catchments, whereas a dilution pattern prevailed in those with significant point source inputs. The model validation with measured riverine TP concentration reached a NSE of 0.63. However, peak values in TP concentration during low flow rates sensitively affected the fitting of the models. In spite of non-point source dominance in the catchments, some relationships presented a slight signal of this use type. The variation range of the fitting parameters in comparison with other studies, as well the expected behavior of the curves in light of land use characteristics, strongly support the methodology applied in this study. The proposed approach will potentially help address the TP issue in tropical semiarid regions. Furthermore, the paper presents a simple way to deal with the challenging lack of monitored data in such environments., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This study investigated experimentally the air entrainment and pressure drop in low-cost ejectors composed of two pieces shaped from PVC bars inserted in a 25 mm T-junction of the same material. The hydraulic behavior was very similar for the different ejector designs, and linear relationships between the water and air flow rates were fitted. However, when a rotameter was installed at the air line, the head losses resulted in a pronounced decrease (3-fold) in the air entrainment rate. The maximum air-water entrainment ratios reached by the low-cost ejectors was 1.7, while the pressure drop was about 80% of the upstream pressure. The results suggest that these ejectors have a better benefit-cost ratio than conventional ones for applications such as aeration and mixing in reactors, tanks and water bodies. Comparing our results with those obtained previously by using water both as primary and suction fluids, it was shown that under gas-liquid flow conditions the entrainment ratio was about 2.5 times larger than that for the single-phase case, while the pressure drop was about 15% higher. This was attributed to the lower density of the air and the higher dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy due to bubble-liquid interactions in the two-phase flow case.

This study investigated phosphorus (P) dynamics in the sediment-water interface of three distinct reservoirs located in a tropical semiarid region. Sequential chemical fractioning of the P content in the sediment and controlled experiments of the sediment-water interface were performed to understand and model the effect of the different P fractions on the exchange dynamics under anoxic and oxic scenarios. The results revealed that the older the reservoir, the higher the amount of iron and aluminum-bound P in the sediment, and that this fraction was responsible for a 10-fold increase in P concentration in the water during anoxic conditions. After aeration, P in water decreased but did not return to its initial concentration. The most recently constructed reservoir showed the lowest P concentration in the sediment and dominance of the unavailable P fraction, resulting in no potential impact on water quality. Phosphorus release and precipitation rates were well described by zero- and first-order models, respectively. Reservoirs with high P availability in the sediment, not only released more phosphorus but also presented a lower precipitation rate, resulting in higher potential damage to water quality and making some in-lake treatment techniques potentially ineffective., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Field surveys and integral modelling were carried out to study the effect of bubble plumes on the flow hydrodynamics and the time-evolution of water temperature profiles in a shallow lake with maximum depth of about 4 m. Then, model simulations were performed to verify the feasibility of destratification of ten water-supply reservoirs with capacities of 10-2,000 hm3. Finally, hydrological modelling was conducted to assess the impact of destratification on evaporation suppression and its effects on reservoir yield. The results indicate that net temperature reductions of the order of 1.0°C can be obtained, which corresponds to evaporation suppressions of approximately 10%. In turn, this resulted in increases in the regulated flow of 2-12% that could be described by a general correlation. Lastly, a simplified feasibility analysis provided an operational cost of about 1.0 US$ per cubic meter of saved water, which suggests that artificial destratification cannot be discarded as an alternative for supplementing water supply in rural water-scarce regions.

This paper investigates phosphorus dynamics in a highly polluted system composed of a drainage channel followed by a shallow reservoir in the city of Fortaleza, Brazilian semiarid. During the dry season, significant non-point source loads of total phosphorus originated from residences unconnected to sewers were identified along the channel, resulting in an increasing flow rate of untreated sewage towards the reservoir. During the rainy season, as a consequence of dilution, phosphorus concentrations decreased by about 5-fold. The results also revealed that the reservoir was acting similarly to a waste stabilization pond, with phosphorus removal efficiency of about 33%. Assuming one-dimensional flow for the channel and complete mixing for the reservoir, it was possible to adjust phosphorus decay coefficients of kc = 2.2 day-1 and kr = 22.8 year-1, respectively, which were higher than their corresponding values available in the literature. This was attributed mainly to the relatively high temperatures and shallow water depths. The results also revealed an inverse dependence of kc and kr on water and wind velocity, with potential thresholds of respectively 0.3 and 5.0 m/s for resuspension of bed sediments and internal phosphorus loading.

This paper presents an integral model to evaluate the impact of gas transfer on the hydrodynamics of bubble plumes. The model is based on the Gaussian type self-similarity and functional relationships for the entrainment coefficient and factor of momentum amplification due to turbulence. The impact of mass transfer on bubble plume hydrodynamics is investigated considering different bubble sizes, gas flow rates and water depths. The results revealed a relevant impact when fine bubbles are considered, even for moderate water depths. Additionally, model simulations indicate that for weak bubble plumes (i.e., with relatively low flow rates and large depths and slip velocities), both dissolution and turbulence can affect plume hydrodynamics, which demonstrates the importance of taking the momentum amplification factor relationship into account. For deeper water conditions, simulations of bubble dissolution/decompression using the present model and classical models available in the literature resulted in a very good agreement for both aeration and oxygenation processes. Sensitivity analysis showed that the water depth, followed by the bubble size and the flow rate are the most important parameters that affect plume hydrodynamics. Lastly, dimensionless correlations are proposed to assess the impact of mass transfer on plume hydrodynamics, including both the aeration and oxygenation modes.