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Emotional information pervades experiences in daily life. Numerous studies have established that emotional materials and information are easier to remember than neutral ones, a phenomenon known as the emotional salience effect on memory. In recent years, an emerging body of research has begun to explore the effect of emotion on metamemory. Preliminary findings show that participants offer higher judgments of learning (JOLs) to emotional than to neutral stimuli, a phenomenon termed the emotional salience effect on JOLs. The present meta-analysis integrated data from 1,887 participants, extracted from 17 qualifying studies, to examine the effects of emotion on JOLs and memory and to explore potential moderators of these effects. The results showed a medium-sized (g = 0.53 [0.41, 0.64]) emotional salience effect on JOLs, which was moderated by age and material type, as well as a small to medium (g = 0.38 [0.25, 0.51) emotional salience effect on memory, which was moderated by test format. These findings establish that emotionality is a salient cue in the theoretical framework of metamemory, and also provide some practical implications (e.g., in eyewitness testimony). However, more research is needed, especially employing high-powered pre-registered experiments, to address the signals of publication bias detected in this meta-analysis.

Making metamemory judgments reactively changes item memory itself. Here we report the first investigation of reactive influences of making judgments of learning (JOLs) on interitem relational memory--specifically, temporal (serial) order memory. Experiment 1 found that making JOLs impaired order reconstruction. Experiment 2 observed minimal reactivity on free recall and negative reactivity on temporal clustering. Experiment 3 demonstrated a positive reactivity effect on recognition memory, and Experiment 4 detected dissociable effects of making JOLs on order reconstruction (negative) and forced-choice recognition (positive) by using the same participants and stimuli. Finally, a meta-analysis was conducted to explore reactivity effects on word list learning and to investigate whether test format moderates these effects. The results show a negative reactivity effect on interitem relational memory (order reconstruction), a modest positive effect on free recall, and a medium-to-large positive effect on recognition. Overall, these findings imply that even though making metacognitive judgments facilitates item-specific processing, it disrupts relational processing, supporting the item-order account of the reactivity effect on word list learning.

Recent studies established that making concurrent judgments of learning (JOLs) can significantly alter (typically enhance) memory itself--a "reactivity" effect. The current study recruited 190 Chinese children (M[subscript age] = 8.68 years; 101 female) in 2020 and 2021 to explore the reactivity effect on children's learning, its developmental trajectory and associated metacognitive awareness. The results showed that making JOLs significantly enhanced retention for students in Grades 1, 3, and 5, with Cohen's "d"s ranging from 0.40 to 1.33. Grade 5 students exhibited a larger reactivity effect than Grade 1 and 3 students. Children's metacognitive appreciation of the effect was weak. Firsthand experience of the reactivity effect, induced by taking a memory test, enhanced their awareness and calibrated their judgment accuracy.

The reactivity effect of metacognitive judgments on first-order task performance has received increased research attention. Previous studies showed that soliciting retrospective confidence ratings (CRs) reactively enhances task performance itself, such as performance in decision making and reasoning tasks, especially for those with high self-confidence. It remains unknown whether CRs can improve students' academic assessment performance in real educational settings. The current study recruited 795 fourth-grade elementary school children to explore if making CRs reactively affects students' academic assessment performance in two main subjects (i.e., Chinese Language and Mathematics). The data were collected across six waves with half-year intervals. From Wave 2, children either provided (CR group) or did not provide CRs (no-CR group) when completing standardized academic assessments. The results showed Bayesian evidence supporting the claim that making CRs does not influence children's academic assessment performance (both the average performance across waves 2–6 and the performance in each wave) in both subjects. Furthermore, children's self-confidence did not moderate the reactive influence of CRs. The results from multilevel regression analyses re-confirmed the above conclusions. Possible explanations for the absence of the reactivity effect of CRs on children's academic assessment performance are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: The present study was designed to investigate the role of language control during simultaneous production and comprehension. Design: Participants completed a set of language background and cognitive skills questionnaires and were randomly divided into pairs. Then, the pairs of participants were asked to finish a joint language switching task while their electroencephalogram was recorded. When one participant was naming pictures, the other one was listening. The language to be used in each trial was specified by cues. Data and Analysis: Response latencies were obtained. An analysis was conducted on induced oscillations in a cue-locked period and a stimulus-locked period. Findings: An analysis of induced oscillations showed that production and comprehension exhibited different delta and theta oscillations, suggesting that cross-modality interference may be caused by joint language switching, and bilinguals employed different degrees of language control in comprehension and production. Furthermore, the cross-person condition exhibited stronger oscillations than the within-person condition, indicating that joint language switching involves cross-person interference and that bilinguals use additional oscillations to inhibit such interference. Importantly, the stimulus-locked period showed larger delta and theta oscillations in second language switch trials than in first language switch trials in the within-person condition, indicating that delta and theta may index the inhibition of cross-language interference. Originality: The current study revealed the top-down language control mechanism by analysing induced oscillations, which reflected a mainly cognitively driven process. Significance: Bilinguals' language control might be used to inhibit complex interference during daily life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]