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Why is integration progressing successfully in some parts of the world but not in others? Why are only some integration blocks hugely important for member countries? And why this is not the case globally? This article provides a comparative analysis of international economic structures, aiming to identify the factors that contribute to the validity and effectiveness of integration. The article examines eight economic blocks: the European Union, the Agreement between the United States of America, the United Mexican States and Canada, the Southern Common Market, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Euroasian Economic Union, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the African Union, and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership. We take into account five stages of integration: free trade area, customs union, single market, economic union, and monetary union. To understand the progress of integration, one must consider a number of developments and indicators. The coefficient of economic gravity, which we describe in this paper, is a convenient method to find out how important integration structures are for contracting states.

In this review we present the behavioral aspects of interaction in people with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), taking into account some aspects of pharmacotherapy. In the treatment of people with ASD, an individual approach to emotional, social and cognitive functioning is very important. The specificity of symptoms and their severity in people with ASD results from deficits/disfunction of various areas of the brain and is associated with different levels of intelligence. This manuscript considers selected methods of interaction with ASD patients with normal IQ. Due to the different ways of functioning, these people often find it difficult to adapt to social expectations. The most important thing is to understand their perception of themselves and the world around them in order to support them in coping with the daily challenges. Due to the increasing problem, more and more attention is being focused on early detection of ASD, what allows to intervene as fast as possible and in consequence affect the quality of life of people with this dysfunctions. However, participants with mild autism symptoms are still difficult to diagnose in the practice. The effectiveness of the therapy depends largely on the cooperation of educational institutions. It is also necessary to contact specialist clinics, including a mental health counseling center. However, in the case of children and adolescents, the cooperation between the therapist and their parents is the basis. Systemic family therapy is also important in adults with ASD. An overview of the methods of therapeutic interactions in ASD, what may be helpful in diagnosing of mild ASD, were presented in our manuscript.

Dendrimers are covalently bonded globular nanostructures that may be used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Nowadays, AD therapies are focused on improving cognitive functioning and not causal treatment. However, this may change with the use of dendrimers, which are being investigated as a drug-delivery system or as a drug per se. With their ability to inhibit amyloid formation and their anti-tau properties, they are a promising therapeutic option for AD patients. Studies have shown that dendrimers may inhibit amyloid formation in at least two ways: by blocking fibril growth and by breaking already existing fibrils. Neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) are abnormal filaments built by tau proteins that can be accumulated in the cell, which leads to the loss of cytoskeletal microtubules and tubulin-associated proteins. Cationic phosphorus dendrimers, with their anti-tau properties, can induce the aggregation of tau into amorphous structures. Drug delivery to mitochondria is difficult due to poor transport across biological barriers, such as the inner mitochondrial membrane, which is highly negatively polarized. Dendrimers may be potential nanocarriers and increase mitochondria targeting. Another considered use of dendrimers in AD treatment is as a drug-delivery system, for example, carbamazepine (CBZ) or tacrine. They can also be used to transport siRNA into neuronal tissue and to carry antioxidants and anti-inflammatory drugs to act protectively on the nervous system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia globally. The pathogenesis is multifactorial and includes deposition of amyloid-β in the central nervous system, presence of intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles and a decreased amount of synapses. It remains uncertain what causes the progression of the disease. Nowadays, it is suggested that the brain is connected to the gastrointestinal tract, especially the enteric nervous system and gut microbiome. Studies have found a positive association between AD and gastrointestinal diseases such as periodontitis, Helicobacter pylori infection, inflammatory bowel disease and microbiome disorders. H. pylori and its metabolites can enter the CNS via the oropharyngeal olfactory pathway and may predispose to the onset and progression of AD. Periodontitis may cause systemic inflammation of low severity with high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and neutrophils. Moreover, lipopolysaccharide from oral bacteria accompanies beta-amyloid in plaques that form in the brain. Increased intestinal permeability in IBS leads to neuronal inflammation from transference. Chronic inflammation may lead to beta-amyloid plaque formation in the intestinal tract that spreads to the brain via the vagus nerve. The microbiome plays an important role in many bodily functions, such as nutrient absorption and vitamin production, but it is also an important factor in the development of many diseases, including Alzheimer's disease. Both the quantity and diversity of the microbiome change significantly in patients with AD and even in people in the preclinical stage of the disease, when symptoms are not yet present. The microbiome influences the functioning of the central nervous system through, among other things, the microbiota–gut–brain axis. Given the involvement of the microbiome in the pathogenesis of AD, antibiotic therapy, probiotics and prebiotics, and faecal transplantation are being considered as possible therapeutic options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: HIV is a severe and incurable disease that has a devastating impact worldwide. It affects the immune system and negatively affects the nervous system, leading to various cognitive and behavioral problems. Scientists are actively exploring different therapeutic approaches to combat these issues. One promising method is transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), a non-invasive technique that stimulates the brain. Methods: This review aims to examine how tDCS can help HIV patients. Searches were conducted in the Pubmed/Medline, Research Gate, and Cochrane databases. Results: The literature search resulted in six articles focusing on the effects of tDCS on cognitive and behavioral measures in people with HIV. In some cases, tDCS showed positive improvements in the measures assessed, improving executive functions, depression, attention, reaction time, psychomotor speed, speed of processing, verbal learning and memory, and cognitive functioning. Furthermore, the stimulation was safe with no severe side effects. However, the included studies were of low quality, had small sample sizes, and did not use any relevant biomarkers that would help to understand the mechanisms of action of tDCS in HIV. Conclusions: tDCS may help patients with HIV; however, due to the limited number of studies and the diversity of protocols used, caution should be exercised when recommending this treatment option in clinical settings. More high-quality research, preferably involving neurophysiological and neuroimaging measurements, is necessary to better understand how tDCS works in individuals with HIV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Binge eating disorder (BED) is the most common eating disorder among those contributing to the development of obesity, and thus acts as a significant burden on the lives and health of patients. It is characterized by complex neurobiology, which includes changes in brain activity and neurotransmitter secretion. Existing treatments are moderately effective, and so the search for new therapies that are effective and safe is ongoing. Aim and Methods: This review examines the use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in the treatment of binge eating disorder. Searches were conducted on the PubMed/Medline, Research Gate, and Cochrane databases. Results: Six studies were found that matched the review topic. All of them used the anodal stimulation of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in BED patients. tDCS proved effective in reducing food cravings, the desire to binge eat, the number of binging episodes, and food intake. It also improved the outcomes of inhibitory control and the treatment of eating disorder psychopathology. The potential mechanisms of action of tDCS in BED are explained, limitations in current research are outlined, and recommendations for future research are provided. Conclusions: Preliminary evidence suggests that the anodal application of tDCS to the right DLPFC reduces the symptoms of BED. However, caution should be exercised in the broader use of tDCS in this context due to the small number of studies performed and the small number of patients included. Future studies should incorporate neuroimaging and neurophysiological measurements to elucidate the potential mechanisms of action of tDCS in BED. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women have an over 50% greater risk of dementia than men, which is a main topic of much research. This review aims to investigate the impact of a woman's reproductive history on dementia risk. The consequences of stillbirth are long-term health and psychosocial problems for women. Because of the awareness of an endangered pregnancy, many parents experience deep anxiety and stress in subsequent pregnancies. There are contradictory conclusions from research about abortion and the risk of dementia correlation. When it comes to the late age of first birth, which is said to be above 35 years old, it was observed that older mothers have a decreased risk of dementia compared to those who gave birth in their 20s; however, being a child of the older mother is connected with a higher risk of developing dementia. Using hormonal contraception can result in decreased risk of dementia as estrogen stimulates microglia-related Aβ removal and reduces tau hyperphosphorylation. The influence of postmenopausal hormonal therapy and the duration of the reproductive period on developing dementia remains unclear. Although female disorders like endometriosis and polycystic ovary syndrome are reported to increase the risk of dementia, the research on this topic is very limited, especially when it comes to endometriosis, and needs further investigation. Interestingly, there is no conclusion on whether hypertensive disorders of pregnancy increase the risk of dementia, but most articles seem to confirm this theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Münchausen syndrome can be characterized by simulated illness, pathological lying and wandering from place to place (the patient typically presents to numerous hospitals). Individuals with elevated blood pressure due to non-adherence to medication have the so-called pseudo-resistant hypertension.

Introduction: Down syndrome (DS) stands out as one of the most prevalent genetic disorders, imposing a significant burden on both society and the healthcare system. Scientists are making efforts to understand the neural mechanisms behind the pathophysiology of this disorder. Among the valuable methods for studying these mechanisms is electroencephalography (EEG), a non-invasive technique that measures the brain's electrical activity, characterised by its excellent temporal resolution. This review aims to consolidate studies examining EEG usage in individuals with DS. The objective was to identify shared elements of disrupted EEG activity and, crucially, to elucidate the neural mechanisms underpinning these deviations. Searches were conducted on Pubmed/Medline, Research Gate, and Cochrane databases. Results: The literature search yielded 17 relevant articles. Despite the significant time span, small sample size, and overall heterogeneity of the included studies, three common features of aberrant EEG activity in people with DS were found. Potential mechanisms for this altered activity were delineated. Conclusions: The studies included in this review show altered EEG activity in people with DS compared to the control group. To bolster these current findings, future investigations with larger sample sizes are imperative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review describes associations between dementia and loneliness on the neurobiological and epidemiological levels according to the recent body of literature. The aim of this study was to highlight major lines of research in this field. Sociocognitive skills and social interactions present complex interdependencies with dementia which may be explained by two theories. According to the first one, not sufficiently engaging in social or cognitive activities results in brain atrophy. The second one claims that brain neurogenesis and synaptic density are being increased by social connections. The relationship between loneliness and dementia could be mediated by sensory loss, including hearing and visual impairment, as well as depression and psychotic symptoms. Loneliness itself might cause a depletion in sensory and cognitive stimulation which results in a decrease in neural reserve. Certain changes in the structures of the brain caused by loneliness were found in imaging examination. Loneliness appears to be a crucial risk factor for dementia in recent times due to the modern lifestyle and consequences of the outbreak of COVID-19. Additional studies are required to understand more completely the key tenets of this topic and therefore to improve the prevention and treatment of dementia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]