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High-resolution Airborne Wide-band Camera (HAWC[Formula: see text]) is the facility far-infrared imager and polarimeter for SOFIA, NASA’s Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy. It is designed to cover the portion of the infrared spectrum that is completely inaccessible to ground-based observatories and which is essential for studies of astronomical sources with temperatures between tens and hundreds of degrees Kelvin. Its ability to make polarimetric measurements of aligned dust grains provides a unique new capability for studying interstellar magnetic fields. HAWC[Formula: see text] began commissioning flights in April 2016 and was accepted as a facility instrument in early 2018. In this paper, we describe the instrument, its operational procedures, and its performance on the observatory.

The HIgh-Resolution Mid-infrarEd Spectrometer (HIRMES) is the 3rd Generation Instrument for the Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), currently in development at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), and due for commissioning in 2019. By combining direct-detection Transition Edge Sensor (TES) bolometer arrays, grating-dispersive spectroscopy, and a host of Fabry-Perot tunable filters, HIRMES will provide the ability for high resolution ([Formula: see text]), mid-resolution ([Formula: see text]), and low-resolution ([Formula: see text]) slit-spectroscopy, and 2D Spectral Imaging ([Formula: see text] at selected wavelengths) over the 25–122[Formula: see text][Formula: see text]m mid to far infrared waveband. The driving science application is the evolution of proto-planetary systems via measurements of water-vapor, water-ice, deuterated hydrogen (HD), and neutral oxygen lines. However, HIRMES has been designed to be as flexible as possible to cover a wide range of science cases that fall within its phase-space, all whilst reaching sensitivities and observing powers not yet seen thus far on SOFIA, providing unique observing capabilities which will remain unmatched for decades.

The Polarimeter for Relativistic Astrophysical X-ray Sources (PRAXyS) is one of three Small Explorer (SMEX) missions selected by NASA for Phase A study. The PRAXyS observatory carries an X-ray Polarimeter Instrument (XPI) capable of measuring the linear polarization from a variety of high energy sources, including black holes, neutron stars, and supernova remnants. The XPI is comprised of two identical mirror-Time Projection Chamber (TPC) polarimeter telescopes with a system effective area of 124 cm2 at 3 keV, capable of photon limited observations for sources as faint as 1 mCrab. The XPI is built with well-established technologies. This paper will describe the performance of the XPI flight mirror with the engineering test unit polarimeter.

Two-dimensional MEMS microshutter arrays (MSA) have been fabricated at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) for the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) to enable cryogenic (~35 K) spectrographic astronomy measurements at near-infrared wavelengths. Functioning as a focal plane object selection device, the MSA is a 2D programmable aperture mask with fine resolution, high efficiency and high contrast. The MSA are close-packed silicon nitride shutters (cell size of 100 µm × 200 µm) patterned with a torsion flexure to allow their opening to 90°. A layer of magnetic material is deposited onto each shutter to permit magnetic actuation. Two electrodes are deposited, one onto each shutter and another onto the support structure side-wall, permitting electrostatic latching and 2D addressing. New techniques were developed to test MSA under mission-similar conditions (8 K ≤ T < 300 K). The 'magnetic rotisserie' has proven to be an excellent tool for rapid characterization of MSA. Tests conducted with the magnetic rotisserie method include accelerated cryogenic lifetesting of unpackaged 128 × 64 MSA and parallel measurement of the magneto-mechanical stiffness of shutters in 'pathfinder' test samples containing multiple MSA designs. Lifetest results indicate a logarithmic failure rate out to ~106 shutter actuations. These results have increased our understanding of failure mechanisms and provide a means to predict the overall reliability of MSA devices.

The Reionization And Transient Infra,.Red (RATIR) camera has been built for rapid Gamma,.Ray Burst (GRE) followup and will provide simultaneous optical and infrared photometric capabilities. The infrared portion of this camera incorporates two Teledyne HgCdTe HAWAII-2RG detectors, controlled by Teledyne's SIDECAR ASICs. While other ground-based systems have used the SIDECAR before, this system also utilizes Teledyne's JADE2 interface card and IDE development environment. Together, this setup comprises Teledyne's Development Kit, which is a bundled solution that can be efficiently integrated into future ground-based systems. In this presentation, we characterize the system's read noise, dark current, and conversion gain.

The Reionization And Transients InfraRed (RATIR) camera has been built for rapid Gamma-Ray Burst (GRB) followup and will provide quasi-simultaneous imaging in ugri ZY JH . The optical component uses two 2048 × 2048 pixel Finger Lakes Imaging ProLine detectors, one optimized for the SDSS u, g , and r bands and one optimized for the SDSS i band. The infrared portion incorporates two 2048 × 2048 pixel Teledyne HgCdTe HAWAII-2RG detectors, one with a 1.7-micron cutoff and one with a 2.5-micron cutoff. The infrared detectors are controlled by Teledyne's SIDECAR (System for Image Digitization Enhancement Control And Retrieval) ASICs (Application Specific Integrated Circuits). While other ground-based systems have used the SIDECAR before, this system also utilizes Teledyne's JADE2 (JWST ASIC Drive Electronics) interface card and IDE (Integrated Development Environment). Here we present a summary of the software developed to interface the RATIR detectors with Remote Telescope System, 2nd Version (RTS2) software. RTS2 is an integrated open source package for remote observatory control under the Linux operating system and will autonomously coordinate observatory dome, telescope pointing, detector, filter wheel, focus stage, and dewar vacuum compressor operations. Where necessary we have developed custom interfaces between RTS2 and RATIR hardware, most notably for cryogenic focus stage motor drivers and temperature controllers. All detector and hardware interface software developed for RATIR is freely available and open source as part of the RTS2 distribution.

The Reionization and Transients InfraRed camera (RATIR) is a simultaneous optical/NIR multi-band imaging camera which is 100% time-dedicated to the followup of Gamma-ray Bursts. The camera is mounted on the 1.5-meter Johnson telescope of the Mexican Observatorio Astron

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) relies on several innovations to complete its five year mission. One vital technology is microshutters, the programmable field selectors that enable the Near Infrared Spectrometer (NIRSpec) to perform multi-object spectroscopy. Mission success depends on acquiring spectra from large numbers of galaxies by positioning shutter slits over faint targets. Precise selection of faint targets requires field selectors that are both high in contrast and stable in position. We have developed test facilities to evaluate microshutter contrast and alignment stability at their 35K operating temperature. These facilities used a novel application of image registration algorithms to obtain non-contact, sub-micron measurements in cryogenic conditions. The cryogenic motion of the shutters was successfully characterized. Optical results also demonstrated that shutter contrast far exceeds the NIRSpec requirements. Our test program has concluded with the delivery of a flight-qualified field selection subsystem to the NIRSpec bench.

We have developed microshutter array systems at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center for use as multi-object aperture arrays for a Near-Infrared Spectrometer (NIRSpec) instrument. The instrument will be carried on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the next generation of space telescope, after the Hubble Space Telescope retires. The microshutter arrays (MSAs) are designed for the selective transmission of light from objected galaxies in space with high efficiency and high contrast. Arrays are close-packed silicon nitride membranes with a pixel size close to 100x200 μm. Individual shutters are patterned with a torsion flexure permitting shutters to open 90 degrees with minimized stress concentration. In order to enhance optical contrast, light shields are made on each shutter to prevent light leak. Shutters are actuated magnetically, latched and addressed electrostatically. The shutter arrays are fabricated using MEMS bulk-micromachining and packaged utilizing a novel single-sided indium flip-chip bonding technology. The MSA flight system consists of a mosaic of 2 x 2 format of four fully addressable 365 x 171 arrays. The system will be placed in the JWST optical path at the focal plane of NIRSpec detectors. MSAs that we fabricated passed a series of qualification tests for flight capabilities. We are in the process of making final flight-qualified MSA systems for the JWST mission.

One of the James Webb Space Telescope's (JWST) primary science goals is to characterize the epoch of galaxy formation in the universe and observe the first galaxies and clusters of galaxies. This goal requires multi-band imaging and spectroscopic data in the near infrared portion of the spectrum for large numbers of very faint galaxies. Because such objects are sparse on the sky at the JWST resolution, a multi-object spectrograph is necessary to efficiently carry out the required observations. We have developed a fully programmable array of microshutters that will be used as the field selector for the multi-object Near Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) on JWST. This device allows apertures to be opened at the locations of selected galaxies in the field of view while blocking other unwanted light from the sky background and bright sources. In practice, greater than 100 objects within the field of view can be observed simultaneously. This field selection capability greatly improves the sensitivity and efficiency of NIRSpec. In this paper, we describe the microshutter arrays, their development, characteristics, fabrication, testing, and progress toward delivery of a flight-qualified field selection subsystem to the NIRSpec instrument team.

A complex MEMS device, microshutter array system, is being developed at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center for use as an aperture array for a Near-Infrared Spectrometer (NirSpec). The instrument will be carried on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the next generation of space telescope after Hubble Space Telescope retires. The microshutter arrays (MSAs) are designed for the selective transmission of light with high efficiency and high contrast. Arrays are close-packed silicon nitride membranes with a pixel size close to 100x200 mm. Individual shutters are patterned with a torsion flexure permitting shutters to open 90 degrees with a minimized mechanical stress concentration. Light shields are made on to each shutter for light leak prevention so to enhance optical contrast. Shutters are actuated magnetically, latched and addressed electrostatically. The shutter arrays are fabricated using MEMS bulk-micromachining technologies and packaged using single-sided indium flip-chip bonding technology. The MSA flight concept consists of a mosaic of 2 x 2 format of four fully addressable 365 x 171 arrays placed in the JWST optical path at the focal plane.

Two-dimensional MEMS microshutter arrays are being developed at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center for use in the near-infrared region on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). The microshutter arrays are designed for the selective transmission of light with high efficiency and high contrast. The JWST environment requires cryogenic operation at 35K. Microshutter arrays are fabricated out of silicon-oxide-insulated (SOI) silicon wafers. Arrays are close-packed silicon nitride membranes with a pixel size of 100x200 p. Individual shutters are patterned with a torsion flexure permitting shutters to open 90 degrees with a minimized mechanical stress concentration. The mechanical shutter arrays are fabricated using MEMS technologies. The processing includes a multi- layer metal deposition and patterning of shutter electrodes and magnetic pads, reactive ion etching (NE) of the front side to form shutters out of the nitride membrane, an anisotropic back-etch for wafer thinning, followed by a deep RIE (DRIE) back-etch down to the nitride shutter membrane to form W e s and relieve shutters from the silicon substrate. An additional metal deposition and patterning is used to form back electrodes. Shutters are actuated using a magnetic force and latched using an electrostatic force. . . . KEYWORDS: microshutter, MEMS, RIE, DRIE, micro-optics, near inbred, space telescope

Micro Electromechanical System (MEMS) microshutter arrays are being developed at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center for use as a field selector of the Near Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). The microshutter arrays are designed for the spontaneous selection of a large number of objects in the sky and the transmission of light to the NIRSpec detector with high contrast. The JWST environment requires cryogenic operation at 35 K. Microshutter arrays are fabricated out of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) silicon wafers. Arrays are close-packed silicon nitride membranes with a pixel size of 100 x 200 μm. Individual shutters are patterned with a torsion flexure permitting shutters to open 90 degrees with a minimized mechanical stress concentration. Light shields are processed for blocking light from gaps between shutters and frames. The mechanical shutter arrays are fabricated using MEMS technologies. The processing includes multi-layer metal depositions, the patterning of magnetic stripes and shutter electrodes, a reactive ion etching (RIE) to form shutters out of the nitride membrane, an anisotropic back-etch for wafer thinning, followed by a deep RIE (DRIE) back-etch to form mechanical supporting grids and release shutters from the silicon substrate. An additional metal deposition is used to form back electrodes. Shutters are actuated by a magnetic force and latched using an electrostatic force. Optical tests, addressing tests, and life tests are conducted to evaluate the performance and the reliability of microshutter arrays.

The Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer (IRMOS) is a principle investigator-class instrument for the Kitt Peak National Observatory 2.1 m and Mayall 3.8 m telescopes. IRMOS is a near-IR (0.8 - 2.5 micron) spectrometer with low-to mid-resolving power (R = lambda/delta lambda = 300 - 3000). On the 3.8 m telescope, IRMOS produces simultaneous spectra of approximately 100 objects in its approximately 3 x 2 arcmin field of view using a commercial micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) digital micro-mirror device (DMD) from Texas Instruments. The multi-mirror array DMD operates as a real-time programmable slit mask. The all-reflective optical design consists of two imaging subsystems. The focal reducer images the focal plane of the telescope onto the DMD field stop, and the spectrograph images the DMD onto a large-format detector. The instrument operates at approximately 80 K, cooled by a single electro-mechanical cryocooler. The bench and all components are made from aluminum 6061-T651. There are three cryogenic mechanisms. We describe laboratory integration and test of IRMOS before shipment to Kitt Peak. We give an overview of the optical alignment technique and integration of optical, mechanical, electrical and cryogenic subsystems. We compare optical test results to model predictions of point spread function size and morphology, contrast, and stray light. We discuss some lessons learned and conclude with a prediction for performance on the telescope.

The Infrared Multi-Object Spectrograph (IRMOS) is a facility instrument for the Kitt Peak National Observatory Mayall Telescope (3.8 meter). IRMOS is a low- to mid-resolving power (R = λ/Δλ = 300-3800), near-IR (0.8-2.5 µm) spectrograph that produces simultaneous spectra of ~100 objects in its 2.8 × 2.0 arcmin field of view using a real-time programmable, multi-aperture field stop. The instrument operating temperature is ~80 K to allow for IR detector operation and for improved K-band performance. The optical bench and mirrors are machined from aluminum 6061-T651, allowing easier ambient temperature optical alignment. IRMOS utilizes four powered mirrors, three flat mirrors, two rotary mechanisms, one linear mechanism, a commercial MEMS multi-mirror array device and a large format, HgCdTe detector. The final design of the instrument and all of its components evolved through several iterations and a series of requirement/feasibility trades. During the design process, we found the heritage of past instruments with similar operating conditions to be invaluable in understanding our challenge, maximizing performance, and minimizing cost. The decision-making process of our design, as well as some of the major technical achievements, are described from a systems point of view in order to provide a list of "lessons learned" for future cryogenic instrument design and construction.

We describe the population, optomechanical alignment, and alignment verification of near-infrared gratings on the grating wheel mechanism (GWM) for the Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer (IRMOS). IRMOS is a cryogenic (80 K), principle investigator-class instrument for the 2.1 m and Mayall 3.8 m telescopes at Kitt Peak National Observatory, and a MEMS spectrometer concept demonstrator for the James Webb Space Telescope. The GWM consists of 13 planar diffraction gratings and one flat imaging mirror (58 x 57 mm), each mounted at a unique compound angle on a 32 cm diameter gear. The mechanism is predominantly made of Al 6061. The grating substrates are stress relieved for enhanced cryogenic performance. The optical surfaces are replicated from off-the-shelf masters. The imaging mirror is diamond turned. The GWM spans a projected diameter of approx. 48 cm when fully assembled, utilizes several flexure designs to accommodate potential thermal gradients, and is controlled using custom software with an off-the-shelf controller. Under ambient conditions, each grating is aligned in six degrees of freedom relative to a coordinate system that is referenced to an optical alignment cube mounted at the center of the gear. The local tip/tilt (Rx/Ry) orientation of a given grating is measured using the zero-order return from an autocollimating theodolite. The other degrees of freedom are measured using a two-axis cathetometer and rotary table. Each grating's mount includes a one-piece shim located between the optic and the gear. The shim is machined to fine align each grating. We verify ambient alignment by comparing grating difractive properties to model predictions.

The Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer (IRMOS) is a principle investigator class instrument for the Kitt Peak National Observatory 4 and 2.1 meter telescopes. IRMOS is a near-IR (0.8 - 2.5 micron) spectrometer with low-to mid-resolving power (R = 300 - 3000). IRMOS produces simultaneous spectra of approximately 100 objects in its 2.8 x 2.0 arc-min field of view (4 m telescope) using a commercial Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) micro-mirror array (MMA) from Texas Instruments. The IRMOS optical design consists of two imaging subsystems. The focal reducer images the focal plane of the telescope onto the MMA field stop, and the spectrograph images the MMA onto the detector. We describe ambient breadboard subsystem alignment and imaging performance of each stage independently, and ambient imaging performance of the fully assembled instrument. Interferometric measurements of subsystem wavefront error serve as a qualitative alignment guide, and are accomplished using a commercial, modified Twyman-Green laser unequal path interferometer. Image testing provides verification of the optomechanical alignment method and a measurement of near-angle scattered light due to mirror small-scale surface error. Image testing is performed at multiple field points. A mercury-argon pencil lamp provides a spectral line at 546.1 nanometers, a blackbody source provides a line at 1550 nanometers, and a CCD camera and IR camera are used as detectors. We use commercial optical modeling software to predict the point-spread function and its effect on instrument slit transmission and resolution. Our breadboard and instrument level test results validate this prediction. We conclude with an instrument performance prediction for cryogenic operation and first light in late 2003.

The Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer (IRMOS) is a facility instrument for the Kitt Peak National Observatory 4 and 2.1 meter telescopes. IRMOS is a near-IR (0.8 - 2.5 μm) spectrometer with low- to mid-resolving power (R = 300 - 3000). The IRMOS spectrometer produces simultaneous spectra of ~100 objects in its 2.8 x 2.0 arcmin field of view using a commercial MEMS multi-mirror array device (MMA) from Texas Instruments. The IRMOS optical design consists of two imaging subsystems. The focal reducer images the focal plane of the telescope onto the MMA field stop, and the spectrograph images the MMA onto the detector. We describe the breadboard subsystem alignment method and imaging performance of the focal reducer. This testing provides verification of the optomechanical alignment method and a measurement of near-angle scattered light due to mirror small-scale surface error. Interferometric measurements of subsystem wavefront error serve to verify alignment and are accomplished using a commercial, modified Twyman-Green laser unequal path interferometer. Image testing is then performed for the central field point. A mercury-argon pencil lamp provides the spectral line at 546.1 nm, and a CCD camera is the detector. We use the Optical Surface Analysis Code to predict the point-spread function and its effect on instrument slit transmission, and our breadboard test results validate this prediction. Our results show that scattered light from the subsystem and encircled energy is slightly worse than expected. Finally, we perform component level image testing of the MMA, and our results show that scattered light from the MMA is of the same magnitude as that of the focal reducer.

The Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer (IRMOS) is an innovative near-IR instrument approaching completion. IRMOS will provide R~300, 1000, and 3000 spectroscopy in the J, H, and K bands plus R~1000 in Z together with imaging in all bands. Using a Texas Instruments 848x600 element DMD as a micro mirror array to synthesize slits in an imaging spectrometer obtaining up to 100 simultaneous spectra will be possible. Designed for the KPNO 4 and 2.2 meter telescopes, IRMOS will provide 3x2 and 6x4 arc minute fields of view on these telescopes. IRMOS is constructed mainly of 6061 Aluminum using diamond machined optics which has permitted a complex, compact, all reflective optical design. We describe the design and status of IRMOS, summarize its expected performance, and discuss several interesting aspects of its development and the use of TI DMD devices. IRMOS is a joint project of the Space Telescope Science Institute, the NASA Next Generation Space Telescope Project, and the Kitt Peak National Observatory.

Challenges in fabrication and testing have historically limited the choice of surfaces available for the design of reflective optical instruments. Spherical and conic mirrors are common, but, for future science instruments, more degrees of freedom will be necessary to meet performance and packaging requirements. These instruments will be composed of surfaces of revolution located far off-axis with large spherical departure, and some designs will even require asymmetric surface profiles. We describe the design and diamond machining of seven aluminum mirrors: three rotationally symmetric, off-axis conic sections, one off-axis biconic, and three flat mirror designs. These mirrors are for the Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer instrument, a facility instrument for the Kitt Peak National Observatory’s Mayall Telescope (3.8 m) and a pathfinder for the future Next Generation Space Telescope multi-object spectrograph. The symmetric mirrors include convex and concave prolate and oblate ellipsoids, and range in aperture from 92 x 77 mm to 284 x 264 mm and in f-number from 0.9 to 2.4. The biconic mirror is concave and has a 94 x 76 mm aperture, (formula available in paper) and is decentered by -2 mm in x and 227 mm in y. The mirrors have an aspect ratio of approximately 6:1. The fabrication tolerances for surface error are < 63.3 nm RMS figure error and < 10 nm RMS microroughness. The mirrors are attached to the instrument bench using semi-kinematic, integral flexure mounts and optomechanically aligned to the instrument coordinate system using fiducial marks and datum surfaces. We also describe in-process profilometry and optical testing.

The Infrared Multi-Object Spectrograph is a facility instrument for the KPNO Mayall Telescope. IRMOS is a low- to mid-resolution, near-IR (0.8-2.5 um) spectrograph that produces simultaneous spectra of ~100 objects in its 2.8 × 2.0 arcmin field of view. The instrument operating temperature is ~80 K and the design is athermal. The bench and mirrors are machined from Al 6061-T651. In spite of its baseline mechanical stress relief, Al 6061-T651 harbors residual stress, which, unless relieved during fabrication, may distort mirror figure to unacceptable levels at the operating temperature (~80 K). Other cryogenic, astronomy instruments using Al mirrors have employed a variety of heat treatment formulae, with mixed results. We present the results of a test program designed to empirically determine the best stress relief procedure for the IRMOS mirrors. Identical test mirrors are processed with six different stress relief formulae from the literature and institutional heritage. After figuring via diamond turning, the mirrors are tested for figure error at room temperature and at ~80 K for three thermal cycles. The heat treatment procedure for the mirrors that yielded the least and most repeatable change in figure error is applied to the IRMOS mirror blanks. We correlate the results of our optical testing with heat treatment and metallographic data.

The wide-field infrared explorer (WIRE) is a small spaceborne telescope specifically designed to study the evolution of starburst galaxies. This powerful astronomical instrument will be capable of detecting typical starburst galaxies at a redshift of 0.5, ultraluminous infrared galaxies beyond a redshift of 2, and luminous protogalaxies beyond a redshift of 5. The WIRE survey, to be conducted during a four month period during 1998, will cover over 100 deg 2 of high galactic latitude sky at 12 and 25 micrometer. WIRE will measure the ratio of 12 and 25 micrometer flux of detected sources, which is a powerful statistical luminosity indicator. The distribution of starburst galaxy 12-25 micrometer colors as a function of flux density will reveal their evolutionary history and perhaps the presence of protogalaxies at high redshifts. This mission, which is part of the NASA Small Explorer program, takes advantage of recent advances in infrared array detector technology to provide a large sensitivity gain over previously flown missions. During its four-month mission lifetime, WIRE will amass a catalog exceeding the size of the 1983 Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) Point Source Catalog at flux levels over 500 times fainter than the IRAS Faint Source Catalog. WIRE has been designed to maximize detections of high-redshift starburst galaxies using an extremely small and simple instrument. The 30 cm aperture Cassegrain telescope has no moving parts, no reimaging optics and a wide 33 by 33 arcminute field of view. The optics and detectors are cooled during the mission using a lightweight two-stage solid hydrogen cryostat. The three-axis stabilized spacecraft bus is provided by the Goddard Space Flight Center Small Explorer Project Team. The mission, to be launched in September 1998 using an Orbital Sciences Corporation Pegasus XL Launch Vehicle, is managed by GSFC.

NASA/GSFC personnel in cooperation with other researchers are currently investigating a number of issues regarding the integration of cryocoolers into space flight missions. These issues include (I) integration of space flight cryocoolers with detector assemblies, (II) cryocooler-to-spacecraft interactions and vibration suppression with space flight and tactical cryocoolers, and (III) developments in cryogenic capillary pump loop technology to interface multiple cryocoolers to a common load.

This paper summarizes results from testing efforts performed at NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) on the latest generation of long life cryocoolers produced under contract to GSFC by Ball Aerospace and Lockheed. NASA/GSFC has invested significant resources during the last decade to develop long life, low vibration mechanical cryocoolers for space applications with typical lifetimes of five years or more. These cryocoolers and the technology development they represent are the result of this dedicated effort. Both cryocoolers have undergone extensive characterization testing at NASA/GSFC which includes the measurement of load curves, power input requirements, axial and lateral vibrations measurements (with and without vibration control systems in operation), stiction testing, thermal vacuum performance testing, and alignment verification methods.

NASA/GSFC personnel have evaluated a commercial, low vibration, linear motor driven Stirling cryocooler made by Sunpower Inc. for potential space use on long duration space flight missions. NASA, the U.S. Air Force and industry have invested considerable money during the last decade to develop low vibration mechanical cryocoolers for space applications with typical lifetimes of five years or more. Present space-based cryocoolers typically cost about $1 million per cryocooler. As a potential alternative for one to three year space flight missions, NASA/GSFC has purchased and evaluated eight identical commercial cryocoolers manufactured by Sunpower, Inc. These cryocoolers were designed to have an operational life of greater than 50,000 hours. The cryocooler is an integral Stirling cycle, free piston displacer using linear drive motors for a single compressor and single counterbalancer. Characterization tests include load curves, power measurements, thermal vacuum testing and axial and lateral vibration measurements with and without an active vibration control system. Launch vibration and preliminary life test data will also be presented.

This paper summarizes major results from testing efforts performed at NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC) on the latest generation of long life cryocoolers produced by Ball Aerospace, Lockheed, TRW and Fairchild/Creare. All of these cryocoolers were installed on vibration dynamometers in a thermal vacuum chamber. Characterization tests include the measurement of cooling load as a function of temperature; power input; axial and lateral vibration measurements, both with and without vibration control implemented; stiction testing; thermal vacuum performance testing; and where possible, methods of alignment verification. Once initial characterization is completed, life testing will commence. Characterization testing will be repeated every 2000 hours to monitor performance degradation over time. Conclusions and lessons learned are presented.

A simple control system using force sensors and non-real time signal processing has been designed and tested which reduces vibration levels to 0.1 Newtons or less at the fundamental drive frequency and the 2nd through the 10th harmonics. The NASA/GSFC control algorithm is briefly discussed.

NASA, the U.S. Air Force and industry have made a considerable investment during the last decade to develop low vibration mechanical cryocoolers for space applications with a typical-mean-time-to-failure (MTTF) goal of five years or more. The cost is expected to be about $1.0 million per cryocooler. Unbalanced tactical cryocoolers are readily available at comparatively low cost (< $20,000.00) with typical MTTF’s of about 2500–8000 hours. NASA/GSFC personnel have tested tactical cryocoolers from Magnavox, Texas Instruments & Hughes Aircraft, to determine if typical vibration and thermal requirements of shuttle or other short duration space-flight missions could be met. All of these cryocoolers were of the linear motor type with opposed compressors and a free piston, unbalanced expander. Typical vibration levels are 2 Newtons of force at the expander and 1 Newton of force at the compressor at the fundamental and harmonic frequencies through 1000 Hz. NASA/GSFC personnel designed and implemented a low cost active counterbalance to mount on each expander to reduce vibrations. NASA/GSFC’s vibration control algorithm was then used to further null vibrations to below 0.1 Newtons.

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC) is investigating advanced thermal interface techniques between a cryocooler coldfinger and the load to be cooled. The fundamental goal was to develop a six degree of freedom, flexible cryogenic thermal strap which would mitigate the propagation of residual vibration from the cryocooler to the load while keeping strap thermal resistance to a minimum. Nine different straps have been fabricated and evaluated as of June 1993. Several new concepts will be tested in late 1993 or early 1994. A cryogenic test dewar was fabricated to permit accurate temperature measurement at typical cryocooler operating temperatures of 80K and 30K. A random frequency electromagnetic shaker was then used to accelerate one end of each thermal strap; the other end was fixed. A three axis accelerometer was mounted on the moving end of each thermal strap and three force transducers were mounted orthogonally at the fixed end of each strap. These three acceleration inputs and three force outputs were used to calculate each thermal straps transfer function.

Integration of a Stirling cycle cryocooler into a flight system will require careful attention to the thermal, structural, and electrical interfaces between the cryocooler, the instrument and the spacecraft. These issues are currently under investigation by National Aeronautics and Space Administration/Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC) personnel in laboratory tests of representative longlife cryocoolers.