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Prescribed fire is a widespread management practice in fire-prone ecosystems that can have significant effects on fauna. To inform the development of appropriate prescribed burning regimes, we explored bird responses to time since fire in threatened Banksia woodlands in south-western Australia. We used area searches to estimate bird densities on 20 plots ranging from 1 to 26 years post fire. Fire had no significant effect on the overall bird community or any foraging guilds and there was no clear post-fire succession. Of the 26 frequently occurring species analysed, only two showed responses to fire, with yellow-rumped thornbills more abundant in early and late post-fire sites and scarlet robins more abundant in either early, or early and late post-fire habitats. Our study suggested that bird communities in Banksia woodlands are quite adaptable to a range of prescribed burning regimes. However, owing to late-successional reptiles, Carnaby’s black cockatoo and mammals in Banksia woodlands, we recommend prescribed burning regimes that reduce early and increase late successional habitat. Phytophthora dieback, urbanisation and associated habitat fragmentation and a drying climate may have important synergistic effects and the role of these in structuring bird communities needs to be further considered in developing appropriate fire regimes.

Context The amount and configuration of habitat are independent but tightly linked landscape characteristics which are often confounded in ecological studies. Differentiating the effects of each characteristic is critical for conservation, because the mechanisms by which they influence populations are distinct. While studies that have measured the effects of habitat amount and configuration separately have often found the former to be more important, a subset of these studies suggest habitat configuration can be vital to a species when habitat amount is low (10–30%). Objectives We aimed to test the independent effects of habitat amount and configuration on the occupancy and abundance of an endangered marsupial predator, the northern quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus), which persists in naturally fragmented rocky landscapes, in which habitat amount is naturally low (i.e. typically Methods Northern quolls were surveyed across 22 study landscapes that were deliberately selected such that habitat amount and configuration were uncorrelated. Northern quoll occupancy and abundance was estimated at each landscape using data collected from remote sensing cameras, and a combination of occupancy and n-mixture models. Results Spatial configuration of rocky habitats was more important than the amount of habitat when predicting quoll occupancy and abundance; northern quolls were less abundant in landscapes that were more fragmented. In addition, northern quolls favoured areas that were topographically rugged and received more rainfall. Conclusions Our results support the hypothesis that the effects of habitat configuration can be strongest when habitat amount is low, and underscore the importance of aggregated patches of rocky outcrops for northern quoll conservation. The subdivision of rocky habitat, for instance through construction of mines or mining infrastructure (e.g. road, rail lines), is likely to have negative impacts on northern quoll populations.

Digging animals perform many ecosystem functions, including soil turnover and vectoring fungi, particularly mycorrhizal fungi. However, these animals are also susceptible to the impacts of urbanisation, resulting in altered ecosystem processes. Some digging mammals, such as the omnivorous quenda (Isoodon fusciventer), a medium-sized marsupial bandicoot endemic to southwestern Australia, persist in urban landscapes and may play important roles as fungal vectors. This paper examines the fungal community in quenda scats from natural vegetation remnants within a fragmented urban landscape to ask: are quenda acting as vectors for a functionally diverse fungal community?; what fungal functional types are being vectored?; and does remnant size impact fungal species richness and composition vectored by quenda? We sequenced 53 scat samples collected from remnants and found that quenda disperse a functionally diverse fungal community, with 31% of the molecular operational taxonomic units (OTUs) putatively mycorrhizal. Fungal OTU richness was greatest in scats from smaller remnants due to higher mean relative abundance of saprotrophs, pathogens and yeasts. Fungal OTU richness of ectomycorrhizal fungi, critical for plant growth, were found at a higher abundance in larger remnants. Fungal composition was affected by remnant size, type and condition of vegetation, and soil type. Our results indicate that maintaining digging mammal populations within urban landscapes may assist with dispersal of fungi that facilitate fungal-plant interactions, contributing to ecosystem health. These results are important to understand the complex ecological implications of urbanisation, and how remaining mammals are critical in maintaining ecosystem processes within the urban land-use matrix.

In response to Australia’s current extinction crisis, substantial research efforts have been targeted towards some of the most imperilled species. One such species is the northern quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus), a marsupial predator that has recently suffered substantial declines in range and is now listed as Endangered. We conducted a systematic review of all literature relevant to the conservation and ecology of northern quolls. We reviewed 143 studies, including research articles, government and industry reports, theses, and books, and quantified research effort in terms of topic, location, and publication period. We then summarised research relevant to northern quoll taxonomy, genetics, distribution, habitat associations, diet, reproduction, movement, threats, management, and Indigenous knowledge. Research effort was higher between 2011 and 2020 than the previous four decades combined. Northern quolls in the Northern Territory were the most studied, followed by the Pilbara, the Kimberley, and Queensland populations. Most studies focused on northern quoll distribution and habitat, management, and threats – primarily cane toads, predation, and fire. We conclude with a non-exhaustive list of ten future research directions. If pursued, these future research directions should provide information critical to managing and conserving northern quolls.

Context Mammal–seed interactions are important for structuring vegetation communities across a diverse range of ecosystems worldwide. In Australia, mammals are typically considered to be seed predators and to play insignificant roles in seed dispersal. However, very few studies have investigated endozoochorous seed dispersal in Australian species. The translocation of Australian mammals for the purposes of ecosystem restoration is increasing. Digging mammals (i.e. species that dig to obtain food or create shelter) are commonly the focus of these translocations because they are considered to be ecosystem engineers, but an understanding of their role in seed dispersal is lacking. Aims The aim of the present study was to expand the understanding of endozoochory in Australian digging mammals by determining whether seeds consumed by select species remain viable and able to germinate. Methods Scat samples were collected from five digging mammal species, known to consume seeds or fruit, across nine sites in Western and South Australia. The samples were searched for seeds, with the recovered seeds identified and tested for viability and germination capacity. Key results The abundance of intact seeds in scats was generally low, but 70% of the retrieved seeds appeared viable. Five species of seed germinated under laboratory conditions. These seeds were retrieved from bilby (Macrotis lagotis), boodie (Bettongia lesueur), golden bandicoot (Isoodon auratus) and quenda (I. fusciventer) scats. Conclusions Seeds consumed by Australian digging mammals can remain viable and germinate, indicating that digging mammals play a more important role in seed dispersal than previously considered. Implications Digging mammals have the potential to contribute to ecosystem restoration efforts through the dispersal of viable seeds, but there is also a risk that non-native species could be dispersed. These costs and benefits should be considered by practitioners when planning reintroductions of digging mammals.

Research on the impacts of anthropogenic habitat fragmentation has dominated landscape ecology for decades, yet our understanding of what drives species’ distributions in naturally fragmented landscapes remains limited. We aimed to (i) determine whether rocky patches embedded within a ‘matrix’ of fire prone grasslands act as naturally fragmented landscapes for an endangered marsupial predator, the northern quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus), and (ii) reveal the extent to which within-patch, patch, landscape variables, and matrix condition drive the occurrence of northern quolls. We deployed remote sensing cameras for a total of 200 nights, at 230 sites spanning rocky and grassland habitats across 6000 km2 of the Pilbara bioregion of Western Australia. We examined the influence of within-patch, patch, landscape variables, and matrix condition on northern quolls using Generalised Linear Mixed Models. We found strong evidence that northern quoll habitat is naturally fragmented, observing higher occurrence and abundance of quolls in rocky patches than the surrounding grassland matrix. Within rocky patches, quolls were more likely to use patches with higher vegetation cover and den availability (within-patch), lower amounts of edge habitat relative to patch area (patch), and larger amounts of surrounding rocky habitat (landscape). When quolls entered the matrix, they tended to remain in areas with high vegetation cover, close to rocky patches. Species occurrence in naturally fragmented landscapes is influenced by factors operating at multiple scales. Rocky habitats are naturally fragmented and vital to the conservation of a range of taxa around the world, including the northern quoll.

The blue-tailed skink (Cryptoblepharus egeriae) is endemic to Christmas Island but underwent rapid population declines in the 1990s and 2000s and was listed as Extinct in the Wild in 2017. As invasive giant centipedes (Scolependra subspinipes) were implicated as a cause of a failed reintroduction of captive bred skinks into a fenced enclosure, we undertook a mesocosm experiment to investigate if skink survival and body condition was negatively affected by the presence and density of S. subspinipes. In addition, we used DNA barcoding to determine if wild centipedes consume other reptile species on Christmas Island. In the mesocosm experiments, survival of skinks was reduced by 30% and 44% at low and high centipede densities respectively over 12 weeks, and skink body condition also declined significantly over this period. DNA barcoding confirmed that skinks that were lost during the mesocosm experiment had been consumed by centipedes. Further, we detected DNA of two invasive reptiles (the common wolf snake Lycodon capucinus and the Asian House gecko Hemidactylus frenatus) in the stomachs of wild-caught centipedes, suggesting that centipedes are a generalist predator of reptiles in this island ecosystem. Based on these results, we recommend that attempts to reintroduce C. egeriae to Christmas Island should include the control of centipedes to increase the likelihood of success.

During the Anthropocene, ongoing rapid environmental changes are exposing many species to novel resources. However, scientists’ understanding of what novel resources are and how they impact species is still rudimentary. Here, we used a resource‐based approach to explore novel resources. First, we conceptualized novel resource use by species along two dimensions of novelty: namely, ecosystem novelty and resource novelty. We then examined characteristics that influence a species’ response to a novel resource and how novel resources can affect individuals, populations, species, and communities. In addition, we discuss potential management complications associated with novel resource use by threatened species. As conservation and management embrace global environmental change, it is critical that ecologists improve the current understanding of the opportunities and risks that novel resources present to species conservation.

Professor Richard Hobbs has had a profound influence on the development of the discipline of restoration ecology. With more than 300 publications spanning a broad scope of applied ecological sciences, he has collaborated with hundreds of researchers. His sometimes‐provocative insights, balanced by extensive empirical research, will have a lasting impact by encouraging people to think more broadly about the science and practice of ecological restoration. Here, on the eve of his retirement, some of his staff and students, past and present, take a retrospective look at his contributions to restoration ecology both as a scientist and as a mentor.

Digging mammals are often considered ecosystem engineers, as they affect important properties of soils and in turn nutrient exchange, vegetation dynamics and habitat quality. Returning such species, and their functions, to areas from where they have been extirpated could help restore degraded landscapes and is increasingly being trialled as a conservation tool. Studies examining the effects of digging mammals have largely been from arid and semi‐arid environments, with little known about their impacts and importance in mesic systems. To address this knowledge gap, we investigated the ecological role of a recently introduced population of eastern barred bandicoots (Perameles gunnii) on Churchill Island, Victoria, south‐eastern Australia, from which all digging mammals have been lost. We quantified the annual rate of soil turnover by estimating the number of foraging pits bandicoots created in 100‐m² plots over a 24‐h period. Foraging pit counts could not be completed in each season, and the overall turnover estimate assumes that autumn/winter months represent turnover rates for the entire year; however, this is likely to fluctuate between seasons. Ten fresh and ten old pits were compared to paired undug control sites to quantify the effect soil disturbance had on soil hydrophobicity, moisture content and soil strength. Plots contained between zero and 64 new foraging pits each day. We estimated that an individual eastern barred bandicoot digs ~487 (95% CI = 416–526) small foraging pits per night, displacing ~13.15 kg (95% CI = 11.2–14.2 kg) of soil, equating to ~400 kg (95% CI = 341–431 kg) of soil in a winter month. Foraging pits were associated with decreased soil compaction and increased soil moisture along the foraging pit profile. Eastern barred bandicoots likely play an important role in ecosystems through their effects on soil, which adds to an increasing body of knowledge suggesting restoration of ecosystems, via the return of ecosystem engineers and their functions, holds much promise for conserving biodiversity and ecological function.

AIM: Species range contractions are increasingly common globally. The niche reduction hypothesis posits that geographic range contractions are often patterned across space owing to heterogeneity in threat impacts and tolerance. We applied the niche reduction hypothesis to the decline of a threatened marsupial predator across northern Australia, the northern quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus). LOCATION: Northern Australia. METHODS: We assembled a database containing 3,178 historic and contemporary records for northern quolls across the extent of their distribution dating between 1778 and 2019. Based on these records, we estimated changes in the geographic range of the northern quoll using α‐hulls across four main populations. We then examined how range contractions related to factors likely to mediate the exposure, susceptibility, or tolerance of northern quolls to threats. RESULT: The extent of range contractions showed an east–west gradient, most likely reflecting the timing of spread of introduced cane toads (Rhinella marina). There were clear changes in environmental characteristics within the contemporary compared to the historic geographic range, with the most substantial occurring in populations that have suffered the greatest range contractions. The contemporary range is comprised of higher quality habitats (measured using environmental niche models), characterized by higher topographical ruggedness and annual rainfall, and reduced distance to water, compared to the historic range. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: Changes to range and niche likely reflect the capacity of complex habitats to ameliorate threats (namely predation and altered fire regimes), and access to resources that increase threat tolerance. This study highlights the multivariate nature of ecological refuges and the importance of high‐quality habitats for the persistence of species exposed to multiple threats. Our methods provide a useful framework which can be applied across taxa in providing valuable insight to management.

Dietary (scat) analysis is a key tool for assessing the potential effects of predators on prey and for comparing resource use between predators, information that is crucial for effective wildlife management. However, misidentification of the species from which scats originate could result in inaccurate conclusions regarding predator–prey interactions and their consequences for ecosystems, which may ultimately compromise conservation and management actions. To address this issue, we developed a framework for decision-making in the face of uncertain scat species origin by incorporating field, laboratory, and molecular identification techniques. We used the framework to examine the diets of two predators, a native apex predator (dingo, Canis lupus dingo) and an invasive mesopredator (feral cat, Felis catus), from 696 field-collected scats in the arid zone of Australia. We examined how uncertainty regarding scat species origin changed perceptions of the nature of the relationship between coexisting predators and their prey. The extent of dietary overlap between dingoes and cats varied with the method used to identify scat species origin. Dietary overlap assessed by laboratory identifications was twice as high as when uncertainty in scat species origin was resolved through our decision framework. If uncertainty in scat species origin is not resolved in dietary studies, practitioners and decision-makers relying on this information run the risk of making misinformed conclusions regarding the ecological function of predators (including potential impacts on threatened species), which could have perverse outcomes if the wrong predators are targeted for management. With uncertainty in scat species origin resolved through our decision framework, a low level of dietary overlap between the two predators was demonstrated, and medium-sized mammals most threatened with extinction were shown to be more at risk of impact from feral cat than from dingo depredations.

Our knowledge of the conservation status of reptiles, the most diverse class of terrestrial vertebrates, has improved dramatically over the past decade, but still lags behind that of the other tetrapod groups. Here, we conduct the first comprehensive evaluation (~92% of the world’s ~1,714 described species) of the conservation status of skinks (Scincidae), a speciose reptile family with a worldwide distribution. Using International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) criteria, we report that ~20% of species are threatened with extinction, and nine species are Extinct or Extinct in the Wild. The highest levels of threat are evident in Madagascar and the Neotropics, and in the subfamilies Mabuyinae, Eugongylinae and Scincinae. The vast majority of threatened skink species were listed based primarily on their small geographic ranges (Criterion B, 83%; Criterion D2, 13%). Although the population trend of 42% of species was stable, 14% have declining populations. The key threats to skinks are habitat loss due to agriculture, invasive species, and biological resource use (e.g., hunting, timber harvesting). The distributions of 61% of species do not overlap with protected areas. Despite our improved knowledge of the conservation status of the world’s skinks, 8% of species remain to be assessed, and 14% are listed as Data Deficient. The conservation status of almost a quarter of the world’s skink species thus remains unknown. We use our updated knowledge of the conservation status of the group to develop and outline the priorities for the conservation assessment and management of the world’s skink species.

Until recently, the reptile fauna of Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean comprised five endemic species (two skinks, two geckos, and one snake) and one native, non‐endemic skink. Four of these species were common and widespread until at least 1979, but by 2012 had disappeared from the wild. During the years of decline, little research was undertaken to examine why the species were disappearing. Here, we use a retrospective expert elicitation to rank potential factors that contributed to the loss of Christmas Island's reptiles and to assess the likelihood of re‐establishing populations of two species now listed as Extinct in the Wild. We additionally considered why one endemic lizard, the Christmas Island giant gecko (Cyrtodactylus sadleiri), and three introduced lizards remain common. Experts considered that the introduced common wolf snake (Lycodon capucinus) was the most likely cause of decline, as its temporal and spatial spread across the island closely matched patterns of lizard disappearances. An Asian co‐occurrence in recent evolutionary timeframes of the common wolf snake with the Christmas Island giant gecko and three introduced reptiles was the most marked point of difference between the extant and lost lizard species. The demise in less than 20 years of 80% of Christmas Island's native lizard assemblage highlights the vulnerability of island fauna to invading species.

Roads and other forms of linear infrastructure are rapidly proliferating worldwide, yet little is known about how roads affect the distribution and abundance of predators, particularly in relatively intact landscapes. We used a combination of motion-sensor cameras and spoor surveys to compare dingo, fox and feral cat activity on unsealed vehicle tracks (hereafter: roads) and up to 3 km away, in relatively intact landscapes of the Great Western Woodlands in south-western Australia. We compared predator activity as indicated by independent sightings and spoor observations, in woodlands and shrublands: vegetation types with contrasting permeabilities. Predator activity was observed between 12 and 261 times more frequently on roads compared with off-road for all species studied. Roads also appeared to affect predator activity up to 2.5 km away. Even poorly formed and abandoned roads concentrated predator activity and affected landscape-scale rates of predator observations. The effect of road proximity on predator activity was non-linear and different between vegetation types for dingoes and cats but not foxes. Our results provide new evidence of the effects of roads on predator activity in surrounding landscapes, with interacting effects of vegetation. They also reinforce previous findings e.g. stronger roads preference displayed by dingoes and foxes, than by cats. Roads and other linear infrastructure have strong effects on predator activity within intact landscapes, although further research is needed to characterise the implications for prey species. Road planning or approvals, as well as habitat restoration programs for threatened species, should account for the effects of roads on predator activity.

Environmental offsets are used increasingly as a conservation tool to balance demands of development and environment but there is little evidence that offsets are effective. Our study assessed the effectiveness of the offset package developed for the Roe Highway Extension, in Western Australia, for Carnaby's black cockatoo, red-tailed black cockatoo and southern brown bandicoot. Black cockatoos were accounted for in the offset requirements, while Southern brown bandicoots were accounted for in the mitigation requirements of the approval but not the offset requirements. The development was cancelled after partial clearing and has not been completed. Pre-development consultant surveys were examined in relation to the offset requirements. Fieldwork was conducted at the offset sites to ground-truth habitat qualities where possible. The offset package was then compared to the principles of Australian Commonwealth and State offset policies. We found the offset package did not completely satisfy Commonwealth or State offset requirements, showed inconsistencies with the policies and produced net loss of environmental value. The offset sites provided 64% of the black cockatoo habitat required by the Commonwealth offset requirements, and were of a lower quality. Similarly, undergrowth vegetation (

Increased attention to species movement in response to environmental change highlights the need to consider changes in species distributions and altered biological assemblages. Such changes are well known from paleoecological studies, but have accelerated with ongoing pervasive human influence. In addition to species that move, some species will stay put, leading to an array of novel interactions. Species show a variety of responses that can allow movement or persistence. Conservation and restoration actions have traditionally focused on maintaining or returning species in particular places, but increasingly also include interventions that facilitate movement. Approaches are required that incorporate the fluidity of biotic assemblages into the goals set and interventions deployed.

The use of environmental offsets has increased in many parts of the world over the last decade, but assessments of their effectiveness have been rare. We provide the first quantification of the effectiveness of offsets in an Australian State (Western Australia) with an offsets register and history of offset implementation. We determined what outcomes were achieved and the environmental effectiveness of 208 past and current offsets applied as part of environmental approvals between 2004 and 2015 under State jurisdiction legislation. Of the past offsets, we conclude that at most 39% of the offsets studied delivered an outcome and can be considered effective, with land acquisition comparing favourably to other offset types. The outcomes of many offsets were unknown due to reporting too soon after implementation (14%) and inadequate reporting (18%). Thirty percent of past offsets during this time period were found be ineffective through non- or inadequate implementation. We observed significant improvements in the clarity of offset approval conditions over the time period of our study, nonetheless, we suggest that these results provide evidence of the need for better implementation of on-ground management and research into the nature of offsets. We make four suggestions for improvement: 1) timely reporting and compliance with environmental conditions; 2) ensuring approval conditions measure ecological outcomes; 3) improving project planning for offsets; and 4) including contingency and longer term planning in offset design. Conclusions from examining implementation of offsets in Western Australia are likely to be applicable wherever offsets policies are in place or being developed.

Digging animals may alter many characteristics of their environment as they disrupt and modify the ground's surface by creating foraging pits or burrows. Extensive disturbance to the soil and litter layer changes litter distribution and availability, potentially altering fuel loads. In many landscapes, including peri-urban areas, fire management to reduce fuel loads is complex and challenging. The reintroduction of previously common digging animals, many of which are now threatened, may have the added benefit of reducing fuel loads. We experimentally examined how the reintroduction of a marsupial bandicoot, quenda (Isoodon fusciventer), altered surface fuel loads in an urban bush reserve in Perth, Western Australia. Foraging activities of quenda (where they dig for subterranean food) were substantial throughout the reserve, creating a visibly patchy distribution in surface litter. Further, in open plots where quenda had access, compared to fenced plots where quenda were excluded, quenda foraging significantly reduced litter cover and litter depth. Similarly, estimated surface fuel loads were nearly halved in open plots where quenda foraged compared to fenced plots where quenda were absent (3.6 cf. 6.4 Mg/ha). Fire behavior modeling, using the estimated surface fuel loads, indicated the predicted rate of spread of fire were significantly lower for open plots where quenda foraged compared to fenced plots under both low (29.2 cf. 51.4 m/h; total fuels) and high (74.3 cf. 130.4 m/h; total fuels) fire conditions. Although many environments require fire, including the bushland where this study occurred, fire management can be a considerable challenge in many landscapes, including urban bushland reserves, which are usually small and close to human infrastructure. The reintroduction of previously common digging species may have potential value as a complimentary tool for reducing fuel loads, and potentially, fire risk.

Fire is a powerful ecological and evolutionary force. Animals that modify drivers of fire behaviour could therefore have far-reaching effects on ecosystems. Yet, with a few notable exceptions, effects of animals on fire have been often overlooked. We show how animals can affect fire behaviour by modifying the amount, structure, or condition of fuel or, more rarely, by altering other controls on fire such as wind speed or ignition patterns. Some effects are readily observed and quantified. Others are more subtle but could be considerable when accumulated over time, space, and animal taxa. A combination of manipulative experiments, landscape studies, and multiscale fire models will be necessary to understand the consequences of widespread changes in animal populations for landscape fire.

Within the varied contexts of environmental policy, conservation of imperilled species populations, and restoration of damaged habitats, an emphasis on idealized optimal conditions has led to increasingly specific targets for management. Overly-precise conservation targets can reduce habitat variability at multiple scales, with unintended consequences for future ecological resilience. We describe this dilemma in the context of endangered species management, stream restoration, and climate-change adaptation. Inappropriate application of conservation targets can be expensive, with marginal conservation benefit. Reduced habitat variability can limit options for managers trying to balance competing objectives with limited resources. Conservation policies should embrace habitat variability, expand decision-space appropriately, and support adaptation to local circumstances to increase ecological resilience in a rapidly changing world.

Animals that forage for food or dig burrows by biopedturbation can alter the biotic and abiotic characteristics of their habitat. The digging activities of such ecosystem engineers, although small at a local scale, may be important for broader scale landscape processes by influencing soil and litter properties, trapping organic matter and seeds, and subsequently altering seedling recruitment. We examined environmental characteristics (soil moisture content, hydrophobicity and litter composition) of foraging pits created by the southern brown bandicoot (Isoodon obesulus; Peramelidae), a digging Australian marsupial, over a 6-month period. Fresh diggings typically contained a higher moisture content and lower hydrophobicity than undisturbed soil. A month later, foraging pits contained greater amounts of fine litter and lower amounts of coarse litter than adjacent undug surfaces, indicating that foraging pits may provide a conducive microhabitat for litter decomposition, potentially reducing litter loads and enhancing nutrient decomposition. We tested whether diggings might affect seedling recruitment (seed removal by seed harvesters and seed germination rates) by artificially mimicking diggings. Although there were no differences in the removal of seeds, seedling recruitment for three native plant species (Acacia saligna, Kennedia prostrata and Eucalyptus gomphocephala) was higher in plots containing artificial diggings compared with undug sites. The digging actions of bandicoots influenced soil moisture and hydrophobicity, the size distribution of litter and seedling recruitment at a local scale. The majority of Australian digging mammals are threatened, with many suffering substantial population and range contraction. However, their persistence in landscapes plays an important role in maintaining the health and function of ecosystems.

Many Australian mammals consume seeds, but their role in seed dispersal has not been well explored. Here, we investigated the mean retention time and the postconsumption germination capacity of Australian seeds (Acacia acuminata, Dodonaea viscosa and Gastrolobium calycinum) likely to be consumed by quenda (Isoodon fusciventer) and woylies (Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi). Mean excretion times were 14h for quenda and 24h for woylies, but some seeds were retained in their digestive passages for up to 39.5 and 55.5h, respectively. Viable seeds of all plant species were retrieved from both species’ scats and only G. calycinum seeds ingested by quenda had a significantly higher germination percentage (62%) than control seeds (34%). Our results show that viable seeds are deposited in the scats of quenda and woylies, indicating that these species may play a role in seed dispersal.

The rapid expansion of urban areas worldwide is leading to native habitat loss and ecosystem fragmentation and degradation. Although the study of urbanisation's impact on biodiversity is gaining increasing interest globally, there is still a disconnect between research recommendations and urbanisation strategies. Expansion of the Perth metropolitan area on the Swan Coastal Plain in south-western Australia, one of the world's thirty-six biodiversity hotspots, continues to affect the Banksia Woodlands (BWs) ecosystem, a federally listed Threatened Ecological Community (TEC). Here, we utilise the framework of a 1989 review of the state of knowledge of BWs ecology and conservation to examine scientific advances made in understanding the composition, processes and functions of BWs and BWs' species over the last 30 years. We highlight key advances in our understanding of the ecological function and role of mechanisms in BWs that are critical to the management of this ecosystem. The most encouraging change since 1989 is the integration of research between historically disparate ecological disciplines. We outline remaining ecological knowledge gaps and identify key research priorities to improve conservation efforts for this TEC. We promote a holistic consideration of BWs with our review providing a comprehensive document that researchers, planners and managers may reference. To effectively conserve ecosystems threatened by urban expansion, a range of stakeholders must be involved in the development and implementation of best practices to conserve and maintain both biodiversity and human wellbeing.

The rapid expansion of urban areas worldwide is leading to native habitat loss and ecosystem fragmentation and degradation. Although the study of urbanisation’s impact on biodiversity is gaining increasing interest globally, there is still a disconnect between research recommendations and urbanisation strategies. Expansion of the Perth metropolitan area on the Swan Coastal Plain in south-western Australia, one of the world’s thirty-six biodiversity hotspots, continues to affect the Banksia Woodlands (BWs) ecosystem, a federally listed Threatened Ecological Community (TEC). Here, we utilise the framework of a 1989 review of the state of knowledge of BWs ecology and conservation to examine scientific advances made in understanding the composition, processes and functions of BWs and BWs’ species over the last 30 years. We highlight key advances in our understanding of the ecological function and role of mechanisms in BWs that are critical to the management of this ecosystem. The most encouraging change since 1989 is the integration of research between historically disparate ecological disciplines. We outline remaining ecological knowledge gaps and identify key research priorities to improve conservation efforts for this TEC. We promote a holistic consideration of BWs with our review providing a comprehensive document that researchers, planners and managers may reference. To effectively conserve ecosystems threatened by urban expansion, a range of stakeholders must be involved in the development and implementation of best practices to conserve and maintain both biodiversity and human wellbeing.

Aim: Although urbanization impacts many species, there is little information on the patterns of occurrences of threatened species in urban relative to non-urban areas. By assessing the extent of the distribution of threatened species across all Australian cities, we aim to investigate the currently under-utilized opportunity that cities present for national biodiversity conservation. Location: Australian mainland, Tasmania and offshore islands. Methods: Distributions of Australia's 1643 legally protected terrestrial species (hereafter 'threatened species') were compiled. We assessed the extent to which they overlapped with 99 cities (ofmore than 10,000 people), with all non-urban areas, and with simulated 'dummy' cities which covered the same area and bioregion as the true cities but were non-urban. We analysed differences between animals and plants, and examined variability within these groups using species accumulation modelling. Threatened species richness of true versus dummy cities was analysed using generalized linear mixed-effects models. Results: Australian cities support substantially more nationally threatened animal and plant species than all other non-urban areas on a unit-area basis. Thirty per cent of threatened species were found to occur in cities. Distribution patterns differed between plants and animals: individual threatened plant species were generally found in fewer cities than threatened animal species, yet plants were more likely to have a greater proportion of their distribution in urban areas than animals. Individual cities tended to contain unique suites of threatened species, especially threatened plants. The analysis of true versus dummy cities demonstrated that, even after accounting for factors such as net primary productivity and distance to the coast, cities still consistently supported a greater number of threatened species. Main conclusions: This research highlights that Australian cities are important for the conservation of threatened species, and that the species assemblages of individual cities are relatively distinct. National conservation policy should recognize that cities play an integral role when planning for and managing threatened species.

Natural regeneration is a critical component of forest ecosystems sustainability. Local extinction can occur without adequate regenerationor seedling recruitment prior to adult senescence. The urban and peri-urban environment is particularly challenging for recruitment. For example, although many forest species have specific requirements involving fire events, few opportunities associated with fire exist in contemporary urban and peri-urban environments. For our study species, Eucalyptus gomphocephala, en masse recruitment can occur in ashbeds following a hot fire. However, this may not occur following low-intensity, fuel reduction burns that are prescribed for many E. gomphocephala woodlands and forests. Nevertheless, ashbeds could be created by constructing and burning coarse woody debris (CWD) piles. In a series of collaborative case studies involving community groups, NGOs and Local and State Government agencies, we investigated whether seedling recruitment could be facilitated through broadcast seeding after: a) creating CWD piles prior to a low intensity, prescribed burn; b) naturally-occurring ashbeds following a hot summer wildfire; and c) creating CWD piles and then burning the piles only. We found that regeneration of this post-fire, canopy gap regenerator can be facilitated by broadcast seeding naturally occurring or created ashbeds. However, it seems that protection from seed harvesters and herbivores is vital. These case studies provide tools that can be used to preserve the natural demographics in populations with specific regeneration requirements in a range of environments by leveraging natural recruitment processes and community involvement. Importantly, it is the conservation of these urban and peri-urban ecosystems that will be vital in maintaining connection between people and the environment into the future.

Abstract ContextEstimating animal abundance often relies on being able to identify individuals; however, this can be challenging, especially when applied to large animals that are difficult to trap and handle. Camera traps have provided a non-invasive alternative by using natural markings to individually identify animals within image data. Although camera traps have been used to individually identify mammals, they are yet to be widely applied to other taxa, such as reptiles. AimsWe assessed the capacity of camera traps to provide images that allow for individual identification of the world’s fourth-largest lizard species, the perentie (Varanus giganteus), and demonstrate other basic morphological and behavioural data that can be gleaned from camera-trap images. MethodsVertically orientated cameras were deployed at 115 sites across a 10000km2 area in north-western Australia for an average of 216 days. We used spot patterning located on the dorsal surface of perenties to identify individuals from camera-trap imagery, with the assistance of freely available spot ID software. We also measured snout-to-vent length (SVL) by using image-analysis software, and collected image time-stamp data to analyse temporal activity patterns. ResultsNinety-two individuals were identified, and individuals were recorded moving distances of up to 1975m. Confidence in identification accuracy was generally high (91%), and estimated SVL measurements varied by an average of 6.7% (min=1.8%, max=21.3%) of individual SVL averages. Larger perenties (SVL of >45cm) were detected mostly between dawn and noon, and in the late afternoon and early evening, whereas small perenties (SVL of

Abstract ContextTo understand the ecological consequences of predator management, reliable and accurate methods are needed to survey and detect predators and the species with which they interact. Recently, poison baits have been developed specifically for lethal and broad-scale control of feral cats in Australia. However, the potential non-target effects of these baits on other predators, including native apex predators (dingoes), and, in turn, cascading effects on lower trophic levels (large herbivores), are poorly understood. AimsWe examined the effect that variation in camera trapping-survey design has on detecting dingoes, feral cats and macropodids, and how different habitat types affect species occurrences. We then examined how a feral cat poison baiting event influences the occupancy of these sympatric species. MethodsWe deployed 80 remotely triggered camera traps over the 2410-km2 Matuwa Indigenous Protected Area, in the semiarid rangelands of Western Australia, and used single-season site-occupancy models to calculate detection probabilities and occupancy for our target species before and after baiting. Key resultsCameras placed on roads were ~60 times more likely to detect dingoes and feral cats than were off-road cameras, whereas audio lures designed to attract feral cats had only a slight positive effect on detection for all target species. Habitat was a significant factor affecting the occupancy of dingoes and macropodids, but not feral cats, with both species being positively associated with open woodlands. Poison baiting to control feral cats did not significantly reduce their occupancy but did so for dingoes, whereas macropodid occupancy increased following baiting and reduced dingo occupancy. ConclusionsCamera traps on roads greatly increase the detection probabilities for predators, whereas audio lures appear to add little or no value to increasing detection for any of the species we targeted. Poison baiting of an invasive mesopredator appeared to negatively affect a non-target, native apex predator, and, in turn, may have resulted in increased activity of large herbivores. ImplicationsManagement and monitoring of predators must pay careful attention to survey design, and lethal control of invasive mesopredators should be approached cautiously so as to avoid potential unintended negative ecological consequences (apex-predator suppression and herbivore release).

Forest canopy loss due to plant pathogens, insect or abiotic factors significantly alters habitat and resource availability for animals, which has flow-on effects for whole ecosystems. The tuart (Eucalyptus gomphocephala) has been in decline throughout its geographic range; this is likely associated with watertable and salinity changes, although a plant pathogen (Phytophthora multivora) has also been implicated. We examined the relative abundance of common brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) across 12 sites (each 0.72 ha) selected on the basis of the health of dominant tuart trees (six ‘healthy’ and six ‘declining’ sites). Habitat variables (understorey, tuart dimensions and density, tree hollows, tree-to-trap distance) and tuart tree health (crown loss, epicormic regrowth) were compared with possum abundance. Possums were detected at most sites. There was no significant difference between brushtail possum numbers at ‘healthy’ or ‘declining’ sites, although marginally more possums were recorded at declining sites (5.7 ± 1.5 (s.e.), n = 6 sites) compared with healthy sites (3.3 ± 0.7; Cohen’s effect size d = 0.80). Slightly higher abundance of possums was associated with sites that had a greater density of smaller-diameter but taller tuart trees. ‘Declining’ sites, with more epicormic regrowth and greater tree densities, may provide more palatable food resources for possums.

Responsible conservation decisions are made when managers consider the benefits provided by an action in relation to the potential negative effects incurred. Some introduced grasses can be managed using fire and grazing, but experiments, replicated in time and space, are required to determine the relative costs and benefits of this action on native biodiversity. We aimed to experimentally determine the effect on reptile and amphibian assemblages of repeated burning and grazing of the invasive weed para grass (Urochloa mutica) over three years in a north Queensland conservation reserve in Australia. We measured the diversity and abundance of reptiles and amphibians, and quantified temperature and humidity during an experiment that repeatedly grazed, burnt, or burnt and grazed para grass in a replicated series of experimental plots. All burnt plots were drier and sites that were both burnt and grazed were hotter. The frog and reptile community was dominated by a few common species. Richness changed seasonally and was strongly related to the distance from the nearest woodland and free water, but it was unaffected by the management treatments. Abundance of the skink (Lampropholis delicata) and frog (Limnodynastes convexiusculus) decreased with burning and grazing, while a closely related frog (Limnodynastes tasmaniensis) remained unaffected. There was a clear trade-off between decreasing the abundance of a few common species to increase the overall suitability of habitat for a diversity of native species. We suggest that, in this case, it is reasonable to make the value judgement that this trade-off is acceptable.

Where threatened species persist in multiple use landscapes, management activities, such as prescribed burning, may influence the availability of resources for those species. We examined how time since fire can influence food resources for the endangered Carnaby’s cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus latirostris) in banksia woodlands of southwestern Australia. Tree density and cone productivity of dominant plant species, Banksia attenuata and Banksia menziesii, were compared across 44 sites of varying post-fire aged vegetation. The number of Carnaby’s cockatoos that could be supported in banksia woodlands was estimated using the bird’s energetic requirements and seed energy content. Banksia attenuata produced more cones at sites aged 10–30 years since fire in both survey years, while cone productivity for B. menziesii was highest in very old sites (>35 years since fire) in one year only. Higher numbers of Carnaby’s cockatoos were predicted to be supported in vegetation aged between 14–30 years since fire, peaking in vegetation aged 20–25 years. The current distribution of post-fire aged vegetation within this area (>60% burnt within the last 7 years) is predicted to support ∼2725 Carnaby’s cockatoos, representing 25–35% of the estimated birds reliant on the area. Our results indicate that food resources are influenced by time since fire and, consequently, if optimising food resources was an objective, may be manipulated by altering burning patterns. While human and asset protection is a priority for prescribed burning, management of landscapes for improved persistence of threatened species is also important and complex trade-offs will have to be considered.

Invasive plant pathogens have impacted forest and woodland systems globally and can negatively impact biodiversity. The soil-borne plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi is listed as one of the world's worst invasive species and alters plant community composition and habitat structure. Few studies have examined how these Phytophthora-induced habitat changes affect faunal communities. We examined bird communities in Banksia woodland with, and without, Phytophthora dieback in a biodiversity hotspot, southwestern Australia. Seven sites along dieback fronts, with paired 1-ha plots in diseased and healthy vegetation, were surveyed monthly for birds over seven months. Vegetation assessments showed that diseased sites had reduced plant species richness, litter, shrub, tree and canopy cover, high bare ground and significantly lower flowering scores, than healthy sites. Bird community composition differed significantly between diseased and healthy sites, although total bird abundance, total species richness and foraging guilds, did not. Average species richness of birds per survey and the abundance of brown honeyeaters, western spinebills and silvereyes was lower in diseased than healthy sites. The tawny-crowned honeyeater had higher abundances in diseased sites. Similarity matrices of habitat structure, flowering scores and bird assemblages were congruent, indicating that habitat structural differences were influencing bird community composition. Our results suggest that this pathogen is potentially a serious threat to avian biodiversity and especially for nectarivores, and populations in fragmented landscapes. Since elimination of the pathogen is not currently possible, management should focus on methods of preventing its spread until techniques to eliminate the pathogen are developed.

Australia is a global hotspot of reptile diversity, hosting similar to 10% of the world's squamate (snake and lizard) species. Yet the conservation status of the Australian squamate fauna has not been assessed for >25 years; a period during which the described fauna has risen by similar to 40%. Here we provide the first comprehensive conservation assessment of Australian terrestrial squamates using IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Most (86.4%; n = 819/948) Australian squamates were categorised as Least Concern, 4.5% were Data Deficient, and 7.1% (range 6.8%-11.3%, depending on the treatment of Data Deficient species) were threatened (3.0% Vulnerable, 2.7% Endangered, 1.1% Critically Endangered). This level of threat is low relative to the global average (similar to 18%). One species (Emoia nativitatis) was assessed as Extinct, and two species (Lepidodactylus listeri and Cryptoblepharus egeriae) are considered Extinct in the Wild: all three were endemic to Christmas Island. Most (75.1%) threat assessments were based on geographic range attributes, due to limited data on population trends or relevant proxies. Agriculture, fire, and invasive species were the threats that affected the most species, and there was substantial geographic variation in the number of species affected by each threat. Threatened species richness peaked on islands, in the Southern Alps, and across northern Australia. Data deficiency was greatest in northern Australia and in coastal Queensland. Approximately one-in-five threatened species were not represented in a single protected area. Our analyses shed light on the species, regions, and threats in most urgent need of conservation intervention.

Caudal autotomy is a common defense mechanism in lizards, where the animal may lose part or all of its tail to escape entrapment. Lizards show an immense variety in the degree of investment in a tail (i.e., length) across species, with tails of some species up to three or four times body length (snout-vent length [SVL]). Additionally, body size and form also vary dramatically, including variation in leg development and robustness and length of the body and tail. Autotomy is therefore likely to have fundamentally different effects on the overall body form and function in different species, which may be reflected directly in the incidence of lost/regenerating tails within populations or, over a longer period, in terms of relative tail length for different species. We recorded data (literature, museum specimens, field data) for relative tail length (n=350 species) and the incidence of lost/regenerating tails (n=246 species). We compared these (taking phylogeny into account) with intrinsic factors that have been proposed to influence selective pressures acting on caudal autotomy, including body form (robustness, body length, leg development, and tail specialization) and ecology (foraging behavior, physical and temporal niches), in an attempt to identify patterns that might reflect adaptive responses to these different factors. More gracile species have relatively longer tails (all 350 spp., P0.001; also significant for five of the six families tested separately), as do longer (all species, P0.001; Iguanidae, P0.05; Lacertidae, P0.001; Scindidae, P0.001), climbing (all species, P0.05), and diurnal (all species, P0.01; Pygopodidae, P0.01) species; geckos without specialized tails (P0.05); or active-foraging skinks (P0.05). We also found some relationships with the data for caudal autotomy, with more lost/regenerating tails for nocturnal lizards (all 246 spp., P0.01; Scindidae, P0.05), larger skinks (P0.05), climbing geckos (P0.05), or active-foraging iguanids (P0.05). The selective advantage of investing in a relatively longer tail may be due to locomotor mechanics, although the patterns observed are also largely consistent with predictions based on predation pressure.

Despite once being described as common, digging mammal species have been lost from the Australian landscape over the last 200 years. Around half of digging mammal species are now extinct or under conservation threat, and the majority of extant species have undergone marked range contractions. 2. Our aim is to identify the role of digging mammals in ecosystem processes throughout Australia. We highlight how the actions of digging mammals are vital for maintaining ecosystem functioning and how their extirpation has led to loss of ecosystem functions. 3. A review of the literature indicates that many aspects of the influence of bioturbation on ecosystem functioning have been studied. The role of digging mammals in arid and semi-arid zones has been previously established. We collate and review a broader scope of studies, including those carried out in the mesic woodlands and forests of Australia. We identify roles of digging mammals in the context of ecosystem functioning and conservation management. 4. Bioturbation significantly alters soil processes, increasing soil turnover and altering the chemical and structural properties of soil. Greater water infiltration and decreased surface run-off and erosion alter soil hydrophobicity and increase soil moisture. Diggings capture organic matter, provide habitat for a diversity of microscopic and macroscopic organisms, and increase nutrient cycling. Mycopha- gous mammals disperse fungi (e.g. mycorrhizae), while all diggings can create suitable sites for fungal growth. Diggings also capture plant seeds, increasing seed- ling germination, recruitment and plant growth. The overall effect of mammal diggings is therefore increased plant vigour and resilience, increased biodiversity and consequently improved ecosystem functioning. 5. We propose that the loss of digging mammals has contributed to the deteriora- tion of ecosystems in Australia. Recognising the roles of digging mammals will inform potential management options such as species translocations or

The complex problems associated with global change processes calls for close collaboration between science disciplines to create new, integrated knowledge. In the wake of global change processes, forests and other natural environments have been rapidly changing, highlighting the need for collaboration and integrative research development. Few tools are available to explore the potential for collaborations in research ventures that are just starting up. This study presents a useful approach for exploring and fostering collaborations between academics working in research teams and organizations comprising multiple science disciplines (i.e., multi-disciplinary). The research aim was to reveal potential barriers, common ground, and research strengths between academics working in a new centre focused on forest and climate change research. This aim was based on the premise that raising awareness and working with this acquired knowledge fosters collaborations and integrative research development. An email survey was deployed amongst the academics to obtain: (i) their understanding of common themes (e.g., climate change, scale of investigation, woodland/forest health/decline), (ii) descriptions of the spatial and temporal scales of their research, and (iii) their approach and perceived contributions to climate change research. These data were analysed using a semi-quantitative content analysis approach. We found that the main potential barriers were likely to be related to differences in understanding of the common research themes, whilst similarities and disciplinary strengths provided critical elements to foster collaborations. These findings were presented and discussed amongst the centre academics to raise awareness and create a dialogue around these issues. This process resulted in the development of four additional research projects involving multiple disciplines. The approach used in this study provides a useful methodology of broader benefit to similar multi-disciplinary research teams and organizations elsewhere.

Fire frequency is a key land management issue, particularly in tropical savannas where fire is widely used and fire recurrence times are often short. We used an extended Before-After-Control-Impact design to examine the impacts of repeated wet-season burning for weed control on bird assemblages in a tropical savanna in north Queensland, Australia. Experimentally replicated fire treatments (unburnt, singularly bunt, twice burnt), in two habitats (riparian and adjacent open woodland), were surveyed over 3 years (1 year before the second burn, 1 year post the second burn, 2 years post the second burn) to examine responses of birds to a rapid recurrence of fire. Following the second burn, species richness and overall bird abundance were lower in the twice-burnt sites than either the unburnt or singularly burnt sites. Feeding group composition varied across year of survey, but within each year, feeding guilds grouped according to fire treatment. In particular, abundance of frugivores and insectivores was lower in twice-burnt sites, probably because of the decline of a native shrub that produces fleshy fruits, Carissa ovata. Although broader climatic variability may ultimately determine overall bird assemblages, our results show that a short fire-return interval will substantially influence bird responses at a local scale. Considering that fire is frequently used as a land management tool, our results emphasize the importance of determining appropriate fire-free intervals.

We investigated demographic responses of the common brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula, a medium-sized arboreal marsupial, after a prescribed fuel reduction burn on Magnetic Island, tropical north Queensland, Australia. Possums were live-trapped every month for 14 months before the fire and 11 months after the fire in both the burnt and unburnt areas; measurements of individuals were taken each month and demographic parameters were modelled using capture–mark–recapture data. Significant differences between the burnt and unburnt sites were found following the fire; recruitment was lower in the unburnt area, where population size also declined. In the burnt area, population size and recruitment displayed a tendency to increase after the fire, while capture probability declined, suggesting that an influx of new individuals, attracted to re-sprouting vegetation, had resulted in trap saturation. There was no detectable effect of the fire on survival, and no fire-induced mortalities were observed. We conclude that a low-intensity, prescribed, fuel-reduction burn had no obvious negative consequences for this possum population.

1. Introduced plant species modify the environment and alter ecological interactions in communities, often to the detriment of native fauna, but the causes driving negative effects on fauna are rarely examined. We used native Australian scincid lizards Carlia munda and Carlia pectoralis and the introduced weed rubber vine Cryptostegia grandiflora as a model system to determine the possible underlying mechanisms driving habitat selection by native fauna in an environment invaded by weeds. 2. Lizards were allowed to select between rubber vine and native eucalypt leaf litter in semi-natural enclosures. To determine the mechanisms of habitat preference, we examined differences in temperature, prey (arthropod) availability and composition, and leaf shape of naturally occurring rubber vine and native vegetation. 3. Lizards discriminated between leaf litter types: 85% of Carlia pectoralis and 80% of Carlia munda chose native leaf litter over rubber vine, clearly indicating a preference for native habitat. 4. In the field, rubber vine leaf litter was cooler at the surface than native leaf litter, and during peak lizard activity was below the temperature range of Carlia. Rubber vine also contained significantly fewer arthropod taxa and a significantly different composition of arthropod taxa, with fewer preferred prey items of Carlia than native vegetation. 5. Finally, rubber vine leaves were significantly shorter than native leaves and the lizards themselves. The shape of rubber vine leaves was different from that of the lizards, potentially making the lizards more obvious on rubber vine litter. This may increase the susceptibility of the lizards to detection by predators. 6. Synthesis and applications. In comparison with native habitat, rubber vine provided a suboptimal environment for litter-dwelling lizards because of the lower ambient temperatures, reduced availability of prey and a reduction in camouflage from predators (dissimilar leaf and lizard shapes). Our study has identified three possible mechanisms by which an introduced plant species can alter the availability of resources in an environment, making it less attractive to native fauna. Our results highlight the importance of understanding how alien plants alter the environment and further emphasize the critical need for management of plants that replace native habitat with a suboptimal environment.

Rubber vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora) is an environmental weed that frequently invades riparian habitats in northern Australia. I examined the habitat use of lizards in riparian and woodland environments comprised of native and rubber vine vegetation. Rubber vine was a major component of vegetation in the riparian habitat (approximately 40%), but only a minor component of woodland habitat (approximately 5%). Of 132 lizards, none were observed using rubber vine vegetation in riparian habitats, significantly less than expected, and only one lizard was observed in rubber vine vegetation in the woodland habitat. As rubber vine vegetation contains features that superficially resemble native habitat used by lizards, such as leaf litter, the avoidance of rubber vine by lizards suggests that rubber vine has underlying characteristics that create a suboptimal environment for lizards.

Simultaneous environmental changes challenge biodiversity persistence and human wellbeing. The science and practice of restoration ecology, in collaboration with other disciplines, can contribute to overcoming these challenges. This endeavor requires a solid conceptual foundation based in empirical research which confronts, tests and influences theoretical developments. We review conceptual developments in restoration ecology over the last 30 years. We frame our review in the context of changing restoration goals which reflect increased societal awareness of the scale of environmental degradation and the recognition that inter-disciplinary approaches are needed to tackle environmental problems. Restoration ecology now encompasses facilitative interactions and network dynamics, trophic cascades, and above- and below ground linkages. It operates in a non-equilibrium, alternative states framework, at the landscape scale, and in response to changing environmental, economic and social conditions. Progress has been marked by conceptual advances in the fields of trait-environment relationships, community assembly, and understanding the links between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Conceptual and practical advances have been enhanced by applying evolving technologies, including treatments to increase seed germination and overcome recruitment bottlenecks, high throughput DNA sequencing to elucidate soil community structure and function, and advances in satellite technology and GPS tracking to monitor habitat use. The synthesis of these technologies with systematic reviews of context dependencies in restoration success, model based analyses and consideration of complex socio-ecological systems will allow generalizations to inform evidence based interventions. Ongoing challenges include setting realistic, socially acceptable goals for restoration under changing environmental conditions, and prioritizing actions in an increasingly space-competitive world. Ethical questions also surround the use of genetically modified material, translocations, taxon substitutions, and de-extinction, in restoration ecology. Addressing these issues, as the Ecological Society of America looks to its next century, will require current and future generations of researchers and practitioners, including economists, engineers, philosophers, landscape architects, social scientists and restoration ecologists, to work together with communities and governments to rise to the environmental challenges of the coming decades.