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Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder without a cure, despite the enormous number of investigations and therapeutic approaches. AD is a consequence of microglial responses to “damage signals”, such as aggregated tau oligomers, which trigger a neuro-inflammatory reaction, promoting the misfolding of cytoskeleton structure. Since AD is the most prevalent cause of dementia in the elderly (>60 years old), new treatments are essential to improve the well-being of affected subjects. The pharmaceutical industry has not developed new drugs with efficacy for controlling AD. In this context, major attention has been given to nutraceuticals and novel bioactive compounds, such as molecules from the Andean Shilajit (AnSh), obtained from the Andes of Chile. Primary cultures of rat hippocampal neurons and mouse neuroblastoma cells were evaluated to examine the functional and neuroprotective role of different AnSh fractions. Our findings show that AnSh fractions increase the number and length of neuronal processes at a differential dose. All fractions were viable in neurons. The AnSh fractions inhibit tau self-aggregation after 10 days of treatment. Finally, we identified two candidate molecules in M3 fractions assayed by UPLC/MS. Our research points to a novel AnSh-derived fraction that is helpful in AD. Intensive work toward elucidation of the molecular mechanisms is being carried out. AnSh is an alternative for AD treatment or as a coadjuvant for an effective treatment.

Background: Clinically-evaluated nutraceuticals are candidates for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) prevention and treatment. Phase I studies showed biological safety of the nutraceutical BrainUp-10®, while a pilot trial demonstrated efficacy for treatment. Cell studies demonstrated neuroprotection. BrainUp-10® blocks tau self-assembly. Apathy is the most common of behavioral alterations. Objective: The aim was to explore efficacy of BrainUp-10® in mitigating cognitive and behavioral symptoms and in providing life quality, in a cohort of Chilean patients with mild to moderate AD. Methods: The was a multicenter, randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled phase II clinical study in mild to moderate AD patients treated with BrainUp-10® daily, while controls received a placebo. Primary endpoint was Apathy (AES scale), while secondary endpoints included Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Trail Making Test (TMT A and TMT B), and Neuropsychiatry Index (NPI). AD blood biomarkers were analyzed. Laboratory tests were applied to all subjects. Results: 82 patients were enrolled. The MMSE score improved significantly at week 24 compared to baseline with tendency to increase, which met the pre-defined superiority criteria. NPI scores improved, the same for caregiver distress at 12th week (p = 0.0557), and the alimentary response (p = 0.0333). Apathy tests showed a statistically significant decrease in group treated with BrainUp-10®, with p = 0.0321 at week 4 and p = 0.0480 at week 12 treatment. A marked decrease in homocysteine was shown with BrainUp-10® (p = 0.0222). Conclusion: Data show that BrainUp-10® produces a statistically significant improvement in apathy, ameliorating neuropsychiatric distress of patients. There were no compound-related adverse events. BrainUp-10® technology may enable patients to receive the benefits for their cognitive and behavioral problems.

Several hypotheses have been postulated to explain how Alzheimer's disease is triggered, but none of them provide a unified view of its pathogenesis. The dominant hypothesis based on build-ups of the amyloid-β peptide has been around for longer than three decades; however, up to today, numerous clinical trials based on the amyloid postulates have been attempted, but all of them have failed. Clearly, the revisited tau hypothesis provides a better explanation of the clinical observations of patients, but it needs to integrate the cumulative observations on the onset of this disease. In this context, the neuroimmuno modulation theory, based on the involvement of inflammatory events in the central nervous system, accounts for all these observations. In this review we intend to emphasize the idea that neuroinflammation is a main target for the search of new therapeutic strategies to control Alzheimer's disease. Beyond mono-targeting approaches using synthetic drugs that control only specific pathophysiological events, emerging therapeutics views based on multi targeting compounds appear to provide a new pathway for Alzheimer's disease treatment.

The establishment of a molecular biomarker for early detection of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is critical for diagnosis and follow up of patients, and as a quantitative parameter in the evaluation of potential new drugs to control AD. A list of blood biomarkers has been reported but none has been validated for the Alzheimer's clinic. The changes in hyperphosphorylated tau and amyloid peptide in the cerebrospinal fluid is currently used as a tool in the clinics and for research purposes, but this method is highly invasive. Recently, we reported a non-invasive and reliable blood biomarker that correlates the increase in the ratio of heavy tau (HMWtau) and the low molecular weight tau (LMWtau) in human platelets and the decrease in the brain volume as measured by structural MRI. This molecular marker has been named Alz-tau®. Beyond the clinical trials developed with a Latin American population, the present study focuses on an evaluation of this biomarker in a Caucasian population. We examined 36 AD patients and 15 cognitively normal subjects recruited in Barcelona, Spain. Tau levels in platelets were determined by immunoreactivity and the cognitive status by using GDS and MMSE neuropsychological tests. The HMW/LMW tau ratio was statistically different between controls and AD patients. A high correlation was found between the increase in MMSE scores and HMW/LMW tau ratio. This study showed that this ratio is significantly higher in AD patients than controls. Moreover, this study on a peripheral marker of AD is valuable to understanding the AD pathogenesis.

One of the major puzzles in medical research and public health systems worldwide is Alzheimer’s disease (AD), reaching nowadays a prevalence near 50 million people. This is a multifactorial brain disorder characterized by progressive cognitive impairment, apathy, and mood and neuropsychiatric disorders. The main risk of AD is aging; a normal biological process associated with a continuum dynamic involving a gradual loss of people’s physical capacities, but with a sound experienced view of life. Studies suggest that AD is a break from normal aging with changes in the powerful functional capacities of neurons as well as in the mechanisms of neuronal protection. In this context, an important path has been opened toward AD prevention considering that there are elements of nutrition, daily exercise, avoidance of toxic substances and drugs, an active social life, meditation, and control of stress, to achieve healthy aging. Here, we analyze the involvement of such factors and how to control environmental risk factors for a better quality of life. Prevention as well as innovative screening programs for early detection of the disease using reliable biomarkers are becoming critical to control the disease. In addition, the failure of traditional pharmacological treatments and search for new drugs has stimulated the emergence of nutraceutical compounds in the context of a “multitarget” therapy, as well as mindfulness approaches shown to be effective in the aging, and applied to the control of AD. An integrated approach involving all these preventive factors combined with novel pharmacological approaches should pave the way for the future control of the disease.

Background: A major drawback in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the lack of validated biomarkers for routine clinical diagnostic. We have reported earlier a novel blood biomarker, named Alz-tau®, based on variants of platelet tau. This marker evaluates the ratio of high molecular weight tau (HMWtau) and the low molecular weight (LMWtau) tau. Objective: To analyze a potential novel source of antigen for Alz-tau®, plasma tau, detected by immunoreactivity with the novel monoclonal antibody, tau51. Methods: We evaluated tau variants in plasma precipitated with ammonium sulfate from 36 AD patients and 15 control subjects by western blot with this novel monoclonal antibody. Results: The HMW/LMWtau ratio was statistically different between AD patients and controls. Conclusions: Plasma tau variants are suitable to be considered as a novel antigen source for the Alz-tau® biomarker for AD.

Background:Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is a severe neurodegenerative disorder that includes the occurrence of behavioral disorders as well as memory and cognitive impairment as major symptoms. AD affects around 12% of the aged population in the world. Considerable research efforts have pointed to the role of innate immunity as the main culprit in the pathogenesis of AD. In this context, and according to with our neuroimmunomodulation theory, microglial activation modifies the cross-talks between microglia and neurons. We postulated that glial activation triggered by “damage signals” activates a pathological molecular cascade that finally leads to hyperphosphorylation and oligomerization of the tau protein. Interestingly, these modifications correlate with the gradual cognitive impairment of patients with the AD. Microglial activation is determined by the nature and strength of the stimulus. In the AD, a continuous activation state of microglia appears to generate neuronal injury and neurodegeneration, producing the outflow of pathological tau from the inner of neurons to the extraneuronal space. Released tau, together with the contribution of ApoE4 protein, would then produce reactivation of microglia, thus inducing a positive feedback that stimulates the vicious cycle in neurodegeneration.Conclusion:Nevertheless, from the pathophysiological perspective AD is significantly more than a loss of memory. In the initial stages of AD pathogenesis, variations in the dopaminergic pathway along with serotonin diminution play an important role. This may explain why depression is associated with the onset of AD. All these pathophysiological events take place together with immunomodulatory changes that trigger tau oligomerization in the course of neurofibrillary tangles formation. Interestingly, mood disorders appear to be followed by neuroinflammatory processes and structural/functional alterations that lead to cognitive impairment in the context of AD.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease, the most common cause of dementia in senile population. According to the World Health Organization, AD represents around 12% of people over 65 worldwide. There are about 48 million people suffering from AD and it is estimates that by 2050 the amount will increase to about 91 million. Due to its aetiological agents, neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) and amyloid plaques (AP), several attempts to explain the genesis and progression of AD have been proposed. Pathological variants of tau protein are the main precursors for AD onset, with a molecular mechanism based on neuroinflammatory processes, as explained in the context of the neuroimmunomodulation theory. Microglial cells play a preponderant role in innate immunity and are the main source of pro-inflammatory factors in the central nervous system (CNS). The links between microglia and neurons are the emerging main focus in AD pathogenesis. Depending on these factors, either a neuroprotective or a pro-inflammatory effect could be triggered. Thus in AD, a persistently active microglial condition generates neuronal damage and death, causing the release of pathological tau toward the extracellular environment. This causes the activation of microglia, promoting a feedback mechanism and generating a continuous cellular damage, synaptic dysfunction and finally cell death. Several pharmacological alternatives have been proposed in recent years to prevent and treat Alzheimer’s disease, without success when it comes to clinical trials. We therefore aim to review and direct our focus on novel natural bioactive compounds, such as those considering the broad picture of this pathology. We have proposed the neuroimmunomodulatory context in order to understand, prevent and help to control the pathology. Here, we present Brain Up-10 as a new potential compound to control AD.

The cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) is known as an exceptional component of the CDK family, due to its characteristic regulatory pathways and its atypical roles in comparison to the classical cyclins. Despite its functional uniqueness, CDK5 shares a great part of its structural similarity with other members of the cyclin-dependent kinase family. After its discovery 26 years ago, a progressive set of cellular functions has been associated with this protein kinase, ranging from neuronal migration, axonal guidance, and synaptic plasticity in diverse stages of brain development, including specific and complex cognitive functions. More than 30 substrates for CDK5 have been found in different cellular pathways. Together with its essential physiological roles, a major discovery was the finding twenty years ago that CDK5 participates in neurodegenerative diseases responsible for tau hyperphosphorylations, and, as a consequence, it becomes a neurotoxic factor. This review focuses on the wide roles of CDK5 in the central nervous system, its implications in neurodegeneration, and provides an integrative insight of its involvement in pain modulation, Alzheimer's disease, and other contexts.

Alzheimer´s disease (AD) and related forms of dementia are increasingly affecting the aging population throughout the world, at an alarming rate. The World Alzheimer´s Report indicates a prevalence of 46.8 million people affected by AD worldwide. As population ages, this number is projected to triple by 2050 unless effective interventions are developed and implemented. Urgent efforts are required for an early detection of this disease. The ultimate goal is the identification of viable targets for the development of molecular markers and validation of their use for early diagnosis of AD that may improve treatment and the disease outcome in patients. The diagnosis of AD has been difficult to resolve since approaches for early and accurate detection and follow-up of AD patients at the clinical level have been reported only recently. Some proposed AD biomarkers include the detection of pathophysiological processes in the brain in vivo with new imaging techniques and novel PET ligands, and the determination of pathogenic proteins in cerebrospinal fluid showing anomalous levels of hyperphosphorylated tau and low Aβ peptide. These biomarkers have been increasingly accepted by AD diagnostic criteria and are important tools for the design of clinical trials, but difficulties in accessibility to costly and invasive procedures have not been completely addressed in clinical settings. New biomarkers are currently being developed to allow determinations of multiple pathological processes including neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, metabolic impairment, protein aggregation and neurodegeneration. Highly specific and sensitive blood biomarkers, using less-invasive procedures to detect AD, are derived from the discoveries of peripheric tau oligomers and amyloid variants in human plasma and platelets. We have also developed a blood tau biomarker that correlates with a cognitive decline and also with neuroimaging determinations of brain atrophy.

Progressive neurodegenerative pathologies in aged populations are an issue of major concern worldwide. The microtubule-associated protein tau is able to self-aggregate to form abnormal supramolecular structures that include small oligomers up to complex polymers. Tauopathies correspond to a group of diseases that share tau pathology as a common etiological agent. Since microglial cells play a preponderant role in innate immunity and are the main source of proinflammatory factors in the central nervous system (CNS), the alterations in the cross-talks between microglia and neuronal cells are the main focus of studies concerning the origins of tauopathies. According to evidence from a series of studies, these changes generate a feedback mechanism reactivating microglia and provoking constant cellular damage. Thus, the previously summarized mechanisms could explain the onset and progression of different tauopathies and their functional/behavioral effects, opening the window towards an understanding of the molecular basis of anomalous tau interactions. Despite clinical and pathological differences, increasing experimental evidence indicates an overlap between tauopathies and synucleinopathies, considering that neuroinflammatory events are involved and the existence of protein misfolding. Neurofibrillary tangles of pathological tau (NFT) and Lewy bodies appear to coexist in certain brain areas. Thus, the co-occurrence of synucleinopathies with tauopathies is evidenced by several investigations, in which NFT were found in the substantia nigra of patients with Parkinson’s disease, suggesting that the pathologies share some common features at the level of neuroinflammatory events.

Intracellular neurofibrillary tangles are part of the core pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), which are mainly composed of hyperphosphorylated tau protein.The purpose of this study is to determine whether high molecular weight (HMW) or low molecular weight (LMW) tau protein levels, as well as the ratio HMW/LMW, present in platelets correlates with brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) structural changes in normal and cognitively impaired subjects.We examined 53 AD patients and 37 cognitively normal subjects recruited from two Memory Clinics at the Universidad de Chile. Tau levels in platelets were determined by immunoreactivity and the MRI scans were analyzed using voxel-based morphometry in 41 AD patients.The HMW/LMW tau ratio was statistically different between controls and AD patients, and no associations were noted between HMW or LMW tau and MRI structures. In a multivariate analysis controlled for age and education level, the HMW/LMW tau ratio was associated with reduced volume in the left medial and right anterior cingulate gyri, right cerebellum, right thalamus (pulvinar), left frontal cortex, and right parahippocampal region.This exploratory study showed that HMW/LMW tau ratio is significantly higher in AD patients than control subjects, and that it is associated with specific brain regions atrophy. Determination of peripheral markers of AD pathology can help understanding the pathophysiology of neurodegeneration in AD.

Alzheimer's disease is a growing health problem worldwide. The pharmaceutical industry has not recently developed any new drugs that have had a significant impact on the natural history of the disease, so considerable attention has been given to nutraceuticals and nutritional bioactive compounds that can be obtained directly from diet or supplementation. These compounds may be able to modify physiopathological processes responsible for neurodegeneration and/or to have pro-cognitive properties. Here, we review current knowledge on the role of diet modifications, lipid and carbohydrates consumption, vitamin supplementation, and the possible effects of antioxidant and nutraceutical compounds with neuroprotective activity, in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease and related disorders.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) diagnosis still depends on the triad of clinical, imaging and neuropsychological testing. The development of accurate, easy to use and inexpensive biological markers for AD is a long-standing aspiration for researchers and the medical community. Here we describe some of the recent advances in the field of biomarkers, both in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and in peripheral blood.

Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia in people over 60 years old. The molecular and cellular alterations that trigger this disease are still diffuse, one of the reasons for the delay in finding an effective treatment. In the search for new targets to search for novel therapeutic avenues, clinical studies in patients who used anti-inflammatory drugs indicating a lower incidence of AD have been of value to support the neuroinflammatory hypothesis of the neurodegenerative processes and the role of innate immunity in this disease. Neuroinflammation appears to occur as a consequence of a series of damage signals, including trauma, infection, oxidative agents, redox iron, oligomers of τ and β-amyloid, etc. In this context, our theory of Neuroimmunomodulation focus on the link between neuronal damage and brain inflammatory process, mediated by the progressive activation of astrocytes and microglial cells with the consequent overproduction of proinflammatory agents. Here, we discuss about the role of microglial and astrocytic cells, the principal agents in neuroinflammation process, in the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as AD. In this context, we also evaluated the potential relevance of natural anti-inflammatory components, which include curcumin and the novel Andean Compound, as agents for AD prevention and as a coadjuvant for AD treatments.

A cumulative number of approaches have been carried out to elucidate the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Tangles formation has been identified as a major event involved in the neurodegenerative process, due to the conversion of either soluble peptides or oligomers into insoluble filaments. Most of recent studies share in common the observation that formation of tau oligomers and the subsequent pathological filaments arrays is a critical step in AD etiopathogenesis. Oligomeric tau species appear to be toxic for neuronal cells, and therefore appear as an appropriate target for the design of molecules that may control morphological and functional alterations leading to cognitive impairment. Thus, current therapeutic strategies are aimed at three major types of molecules: (1) inhibitors of protein kinases and phosphatases that modify tau and that may control neuronal degeneration, (2) methylene blue, and (3) natural phytocomplexes and polyphenolics compounds able to either inhibit the formation of tau filaments or disaggregate them. Only a few polyphenolic molecules have emerged to prevent tau aggregation. In this context, fulvic acid (FA), a humic substance, has potential protective activity cognitive impairment. In fact, formation of paired helical filaments in vitro, is inhibited by FA affecting the length of fibrils and their morphology.