Search

The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area in Queensland, Australia contains globally significant seagrasses supporting key ecosystem services, including habitat and food for threatened populations of dugong and turtle. We compiled 35 years of data in a spatial database, including 81,387 data points with georeferenced seagrass and species presence/absence, depth, dominant sediment type, and collection date. We include data collected under commercial contract that have not been publicly available. Twelve seagrass species were recorded. The deepest seagrass was found at 76 m. Seagrass meadows are at risk from anthropogenic, climate and weather processes. Our database is a valuable resource that provides coastal managers and the global marine community with a long‐term spatial resource describing seagrass populations from the mid‐1980s against which to benchmark change. We address the data issues involved in hindcasting over 30 years to ensure confidence in the accuracy and reliability of data included.

Seagrass ecosystems provide critical contributions (goods and perceived benefits or detriments) for the livelihoods and wellbeing of Pacific Islander peoples. Through in-depth examination of the contributions provided by seagrass ecosystems across the Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs), we find a greater quantity in the Near Oceania (New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands) and western Micronesian (Palau and Northern Marianas) regions; indicating a stronger coupling between human society and seagrass ecosystems. We also find many non-material contributions historically have been overlooked and under-appreciated by decision-makers. Closer cultural connections likely motivate guardianship of seagrass ecosystems by Pacific communities to mitigate local anthropogenic pressures. Regional comparisons also shed light on general and specific aspects of the importance of seagrass ecosystems to Pacific Islanders, which are critical for forming evidence-based policy and management to ensure the long-term resilience of seagrass ecosystems and the contributions they provide.

Seagrass ecosystems are inherently dynamic, responding to environmental change across a range of scales. Habitat requirements of seagrass are well defined, but less is known about their ability to resist disturbance. Specific means of recovery after loss are particularly difficult to quantify. Here we assess the resistance and recovery capacity of 12 seagrass genera. We document four classic trajectories of degradation and recovery for seagrass ecosystems, illustrated with examples from around the world. Recovery can be rapid once conditions improve, but seagrass absence at landscape scales may persist for many decades, perpetuated by feedbacks and/or lack of seed or plant propagules to initiate recovery. It can be difficult to distinguish between slow recovery, recalcitrant degradation, and the need for a window of opportunity to trigger recovery. We propose a framework synthesizing how the spatial and temporal scales of both disturbance and seagrass response affect ecosystem trajectory and hence resilience.

The rate of exchange, or connectivity, among populations effects their ability to recover after disturbance events. However, there is limited information on the extent to which populations are connected or how multiple disturbances affect connectivity, especially in coastal and marine ecosystems. We used network analysis and the outputs of a biophysical model to measure potential functional connectivity and predict the impact of multiple disturbances on seagrasses in the central Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA), Australia. The seagrass networks were densely connected, indicating that seagrasses are resilient to the random loss of meadows. Our analysis identified discrete meadows that are important sources of seagrass propagules and that serve as stepping stones connecting various different parts of the network. Several of these meadows were close to urban areas or ports and likely to be at risk from coastal development. Deep water meadows were highly connected to coastal meadows and may function as a refuge, but only for non-foundation species. We evaluated changes to the structure and functioning of the seagrass networks when one or more discrete meadows were removed due to multiple disturbance events. The scale of disturbance required to disconnect the seagrass networks into two or more components was on average245 km, about half the length of the metapopulation. The densely connected seagrass meadows of the central GBRWHA are not limited by the supply of propagules; therefore, management should focus on improving environmental conditions that support natural seagrass recruitment and recovery processes. Our study provides a new framework for assessing the impact of global change on the connectivity and persistence of coastal and marine ecosystems. Without this knowledge, management actions, including coastal restoration, may prove unnecessary and be unsuccessful.

Seagrasses, flowering marine plants that form underwater meadows, play a significant global role in supporting food security, mitigating climate change and supporting biodiversity. Although progress is being made to conserve seagrass meadows in select areas, most meadows remain under significant pressure resulting in a decline in meadow condition and loss of function. Effective management strategies need to be implemented to reverse seagrass loss and enhance their fundamental role in coastal ocean habitats. Here we propose that seagrass meadows globally face a series of significant common challenges that must be addressed from a multifaceted and interdisciplinary perspective in order to achieve global conservation of seagrass meadows. The six main global challenges to seagrass conservation are (1) a lack of awareness of what seagrasses are and a limited societal recognition of the importance of seagrasses in coastal systems; (2) the status of many seagrass meadows are unknown, and up-to-date information on status and condition is essential; (3) understanding threatening activities at local scales is required to target management actions accordingly; (4) expanding our understanding of interactions between the socio-economic and ecological elements of seagrass systems is essential to balance the needs of people and the planet; (5) seagrass research should be expanded to generate scientific inquiries that support conservation actions; (6) increased understanding of the linkages between seagrass and climate change is required to adapt conservation accordingly. We also explicitly outline a series of proposed policy actions that will enable the scientific and conservation community to rise to these challenges. We urge the seagrass conservation community to engage stakeholders from local resource users to international policy-makers to address the challenges outlined here, in order to secure the future of the world’s seagrass ecosystems and maintain the vital services which they supply. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s13280-018-1115-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorised users.

Seagrass ecosystems exist throughout Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs). Despite this area covering nearly 8% of the global ocean, information on seagrass distribution, biogeography, and status remains largely absent from the scientific literature. We confirm 16 seagrass species occur across 17 of the 22 PICTs with the highest number in Melanesia, followed by Micronesia and Polynesia respectively. The greatest diversity of seagrass occurs in Papua New Guinea (13 species), and attenuates eastward across the Pacific to two species in French Polynesia. We conservatively estimate seagrass extent to be 1446.2 km2, with the greatest extent (84%) in Melanesia. We find seagrass condition in 65% of PICTs increasing or displaying no discernible trend since records began. Marine conservation across the region overwhelmingly focuses on coral reefs, with seagrass ecosystems marginalised in conservation legislation and policy. Traditional knowledge is playing a greater role in managing local seagrass resources and these approaches are having greater success than contemporary conservation approaches. In a world where the future of seagrass ecosystems is looking progressively dire, the Pacific Islands appears as a global bright spot, where pressures remain relatively low and seagrass more resilient.

Aim: The movement of propagules among plant populations affects their ability to replenish and recover after a disturbance. Quantitative data on recovery strategies, including the effectiveness of population connectivity, are often lacking at broad spatial and temporal scales. We use numerical modelling to predict seagrass propagule dispersal and settlement to provide an approach for circumstances where direct, or even indirect, measures of population dynamics are difficult to establish. Location: Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Methods: We used the finite-element Second-generation Louvain-la-Neuve Ice-ocean Model (SLIM) to resolve the hydrodynamics of the central Great Barrier Reef and to simulate the dispersal of seagrass. We predicted dispersal and settlement patterns by releasing 10.6 million passive particles representing seagrass propagules at known sites of seagrass presence. We considered two fractions when modelling seagrass dispersal: floating and suspended propagules. Both fractions were modelled using 34 simulations run for a maximum of 8 weeks during the peak seagrass reproductive period, capturing variability in winds, tides and currents. Results: The 'virtual' seagrass propagules moved on average between 30 and 60 km, but distances of over 900 km also occurred. Most particle movement was to the north-west. The season (month) of release and source locations of the particles correlated with their dispersal distance, particularly for particles released offshore, with the complex coastal topography impeding movements close to the coast. The replenishment and recovery potential of the northernmost meadows was influenced by southern meadows. Protected north-facing bays were less likely to receive particles. Main conclusions: Our approach advances the conservation and management of marine biodiversity by predicting a key component of ecosystem resilience at a spatial scale that informs marine planning. We show a complex interaction among time, wind, water movement and topography that can guide a management response to improving replenishment and recovery after disturbance events.

Seagrass are an important marine ecosystem of the Fiji Islands. We confirm six seagrass species from the archipelago and defined five broad categories of seagrass habitat. We report, with high confidence, seagrass meadows covering 59.19 km2 of Fiji's shallow water habitats from literature and this study. Long-term monitoring of seagrass abundance, species composition, and seed banks at eight sentinel sites, found no long-term trends. Examination of key attributes that affect seagrass resilience identified meadows as predominately enduring and dominated by opportunistic species which had moderate physiological resistance, and high recovery capacity. We examined threats to Fiji's seagrass meadows from extreme climatic events and anthropogenic activities using a suite of indicators, identifying water quality as a major pressure. Based on these findings, we assessed existing protections in Fiji afforded to seagrass and their services. This understanding will help to better manage for seagrass resilience and focus future seagrass research in Fiji.

Implementing management actions to achieve environmental outcomes requires defining and quantifying ecological targets, but this is a complex challenge, and there are few examples of how to quantitatively set them in complex dynamic marine ecosystems. Here we develop a methodology to devise ‘desired state’ for tropical seagrasses in Cleveland Bay, northern Australia, in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. Analysis of diverse species assemblages was used to define seagrass communities as indicators of the region’s ecological value. Multivariate regression trees assigned 8000 observations of species presence/absence and habitat characteristics from 2007 to 2017 into seven community types. Generalized Linear Models were used to assess annual variation in above-ground biomass of each seagrass community. Reference subsets of the data expressing high biomass and spatial extent were identified, and desired state was defined as the mean and 95% confidence intervals. This approach rests on the assumption that seagrass resilience and its ecosystem services are met when the diverse seagrass communities reach desired state. This method required a data set that spanned a range in seagrass conditions, but which may have been compromised by a history of pressures. Our method for defining desired state provides evidence-based targets that can be used within an adaptive management framework that prioritises and implements management actions.

Seagrass ecosystems are increasingly subjected to multiple interacting stressors, making the consequent trajectories difficult to predict. Here, we present a new process-based model of seagrass decline in response to cumulative light and temperature stress. The model is calibrated to laboratory datasets for Great Barrier Reef seagrasses using Bayesian inference. Our model, which is fit to both physiological and morphological data, supports the hypothesis that physiological carbon loss rate controls the shoot density decline rate of seagrasses. The model predicts the time to complete shoot loss, and a new, generalisable, cumulative stress index that indicates the potential seagrass shoot density decline based on the time period of cumulative stress. All model predictions include uncertainty estimates based on uncertainty in the model fit to the data. The calibrated model is packaged into a computer program that can forecast the potential declines of seagrasses due to cumulative light and temperature stress.

Tropical coral reefs are threatened and in decline, and their future is highly uncertain. With increasing rates of climate change and rising global temperatures, people looking to coral reefs for food and income may increasingly have to rely on resources from other habitats. Efforts to protect and conserve the coral reefs we have left are critical for a suite of economic, ecological, cultural and intrinsic reasons, but there is also an urgent need to take heed of the future scenarios from coral reefs and broaden the focus of tropical marine conservation. Seagrass meadows in particular are becoming ever more important for people and planet as coral reef health declines, but these systems are also globally under stronger anthropogenic threat. We need to increase and reprioritize our conservation efforts and use our limited conservation resources in a more targeted manner in order to attain sustainable systems. For seagrass, there are practicable conservation opportunities to develop sustainable ways to respond to increased resource use. Targeted action now could restore and protect seagrass meadows to maintain the many ecosystem services they provide.

This chapter lists all Australian seagrass species with their synonyms, which are currently accepted by the IPNI (International Plant Name Index) and the Plant List; the world authority of plant taxonomy. It also briefly reviews taxonomic studies on the Australian seagrasses and includes keys to all Australian seagrass species, with the practical goal of providing botanists with a name for seagrass species based on morphological characteristics. With their limited range of morphological characters, even constructing a morphological key presents some difficulties. The Australian waters are rich in seagrass species (33), with more than one third of the described seagrass species in the world. The majority of Australian temperate species are endemic, while those occurring in Australian tropics are also distributed in the Indo-Pacific region. Where possible we consider the results of molecular phylogenies but at present these are incomplete, and have only focused on a limited range of species.

The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) includes one of the world's largest areas of seagrass (35,000 km 2 ) encompassing approximately 20% of the world's species. Mapping and monitoring programs sponsored by the Australian and Queensland Governments and Queensland Port Authorities have tracked a worrying decrease in abundance and area since 2007. This decline has almost certainly been the result of a series of severe tropical storms and associated floods exacerbating existing human induced stressors. A complex variety of marine and terrestrial management actions and plans have been implemented to protect seagrass and other habitats in the GBRWHA. For seagrasses, these actions are inadequate. They provide an impression of effective protection of seagrasses; reduce the sense of urgency needed to trigger action; and waste the valuable and limited supply of “conservation capital”. There is a management focus on ports, driven by public concerns about high profile development projects, which exaggerates the importance of these relatively concentrated impacts in comparison to the total range of threats and stressors. For effective management of seagrass at the scale of the GBRWHA, more emphasis needs to be placed on the connectivity between seagrass meadow health, watersheds, and all terrestrial urban and agricultural development associated with human populations. The cumulative impacts to seagrass from coastal and marine processes in the GBRWHA are not evenly distributed, with a mosaic of high and low vulnerability areas. This provides an opportunity to make choices for future coastal development plans that minimise stress on seagrass meadows.

Seagrass meadows are complex social-ecological systems. Understanding seagrass meadows demands a fresh approach integrating “the human dimension”. Citizen science is widely acknowledged for providing significant contributions to science, education, society and policy. Although the take up of citizen science in the marine environment has been slow, the need for such methods to fill vast information gaps is arguably great. Seagrass meadows are easy to access and provide an example of where citizen science is expanding. Technological developments have been pivotal to this, providing new opportunities for citizens to engage with seagrass. The increasing use of online tools has created opportunities to collect and submit as well as help process and analyse data. Citizen science has helped researchers integrate scientific and local knowledge and engage communities to implement conservation measures. Here we use a selection of examples to demonstrate how citizen science can secure a future for seagrass.

Due to increasing development Southeast Asia's coastlines are undergoing massive changes, but the associated impacts on marine habitats are poorly known. Singapore, a densely populated island city-state, is a quintessential example of coastal modification that has resulted in the (hitherto undocumented) loss of seagrass. We reconstructed the historic extent and diversity of local seagrass meadows through herbarium records and backwards extrapolation from contemporary seagrass locations. We also determined the current status of seagrass meadows using long-term monitoring data and identified the main threats to their presence in Singapore. Results show that, even though ∼45% of seagrass has been lost during the last five decades, species diversity remains stable. The main cause of seagrass loss was, and continues to be, land reclamation. We conclude that strict controls on terrestrial runoff and pollution have made it possible for seagrass to persist adjacent to this highly urbanised city-state.

The northeastern Australian coastline from the tropics (10°S) to the subtropical zone of the southern Great Barrier Reef (GBR) and its World Heritage Area (25°S) is famous for coral reefs, a huge drawcard for the Australian tourist industry. Less appreciated but of at least equal importance to ecosystem functionality are the enormous seagrass meadows that stretch along these shallow coastal waters from intertidal banks to about 60 m deep (Fig. 1). Unique for a developed country such as Australia, a large proportion of these meadows are remote from human populations and anthropogenic impacts. Many meadows, such as those in the Gulf of Carpentaria, are inaccessible and rarely visited by people (Fig. 2).

Seagrasses in waters deeper than 15 m in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (adjacent to the Queensland coast) were surveyed using a camera and dredge (towed for a period of 4 to 6 min); 1426 sites were surveyed, spanning from 10 to 25°S, and from inshore to the edge of the reef (out to 120 nautical miles from the coast). At each site seagrass presence, species, and biomass were recorded; together with depth, sediment, secchi, algae presence, epibenthos, and proximity to reefs. Seagrasses in the study area extend down to water depths of 61 m, and are difficult to map other than by generating distributions from point source data. Statistical modeling of the seagrass dis- tribution suggests 40 000 km 2 of the sea bottom has a probability of some seagrass being present. There is strong spatial variation driven in part by the constraint of the Great Barrier Reef's long, thin shape, and by physical processes associated with the land and ocean. All seagrass species found were from the genus Halophila. Probability distributions were mapped for the 4 most common species: Halophila ovalis, H. spinulosa, H. decipiens, and H. tricostata. Distributions of H. ovalis and H. spin- ulosa show strong depth and sediment effects, whereas H. decipiens and H. tricostata are only weakly correlated with environmental variables, but show strong spatial patterns. Distributions of all species are correlated most closely with water depth, the proportion of medium-sized sediment, and visibility measured by Secchi depth. These 3 simple characteristics of the environment correctly pre- dict the presence of seagrass 74% of the time. The results are discussed in terms of environmental dynamics, management of the Great Barrier Reef province, and the potential for using surrogates to predict the presence of seagrass habitats.

The distribution and nutritional profiles of sub-tidal seagrasses from the Torres Strait were surveyed and mapped across an area of 31,000 km2. Benthic sediment composition, water depth, seagrass species type and nutrients were sampled at 168 points selected in a stratified representative pattern. Eleven species of seagrass were present at 56 (33.3%) of the sample points. Halophila spinulosa, Halophila ovalis, Cymodocea serrulata and Syringodium isoetifolium were the most common species and these were nutrient profiled. Sub-tidal seagrass distribution (and associated seagrass nutrient concentrations) was generally confined to northern-central and south-western regions of the survey area (

Detailed data on seagrass distribution, abundance, growth rates and community structure information were collected at Orman Reefs in March 2004 to estimate the above-ground productivity and carbon assimilated by seagrass meadows. Seagrass meadows were re-examined in November 2004 for comparison at the seasonal extremes of seagrass abundance. Ten seagrass species were identified in the meadows on Orman Reefs. Extensive seagrass coverage was found in March (18,700 ha) and November (21,600 ha), with seagrass covering the majority of the intertidal reef-top areas and a large proportion of the subtidal areas examined. There were marked differences in seagrass above-ground biomass, distribution and species composition between the two surveys. Major changes between March and November included a substantial decline in biomass for intertidal meadows and an expansion in area of subtidal meadows. Changes were most likely a result of greater tidal exposure of intertidal meadows prior to November leading to desiccation and temperature-related stress. The Orman Reef seagrass meadows had a total above-ground productivity of 259.8 t DW day-1 and estimated carbon assimilation of 89.4 t C day-1 in March. The majority of this production came from the intertidal meadows which accounted for 81% of the total production. Intra-annual changes in seagrass species composition, shoot density and size of meadows measured in this study were likely to have a strong influence on the total above-ground production during the year. The net estimated above-ground productivity of Orman Reefs meadows in March 2004 (1.19 g C m-2 day-1) was high compared with other tropical seagrass areas that have been studied and also higher than many other marine, estuarine and terrestrial plant communities.

Involvement in scientifically structured habitat monitoring is a relatively new concept to the peoples of Torres Strait. The approach we used was to focus on awareness, and to build the capacity of groups to participate using Seagrass-Watch as the vehicle to provide education and training in monitoring marine ecosystems. The project successfully delivered quality scientifically rigorous baseline information on the seasonality of seagrasses in the Torres Strait-a first for this region. Eight seagrass species were identified across the monitoring sites. Seagrass cover varied within and between years. Preliminary evidence indicated that drivers for seagrass variability were climate related. Generally, seagrass abundance increased during the north-west monsoon (Kuki), possibly a consequence of elevated nutrients, lower tidal exposure times, less wind, and higher air temperatures. Low seagrass abundance coincided with the presence of greater winds and longer periods of exposure at low tides during the south-east trade wind season (Sager). No seasonal patterns were apparent when frequency of disturbance from high sedimentation and human impacts was high. Seagrass-Watch has been incorporated in to the Thursday Island High School's Marine Studies Unit ensuring continuity of monitoring. The students, teachers, and other interested individuals involved in Seagrass-Watch have mastered the necessary scientific procedures to monitor seagrass meadows, and developed skills in coordinating a monitoring program and skills in mentoring younger students. This has increased the participants' self-esteem and confidence, and given them an insight into how they may participate in the future management of their sea country.

Seagrass meadows across north-eastern Australia, survive a range of environmental conditions in coastal bays, reefs, estuarine and deepwater habitats through adaptation of a range of structural, morphological and physiological features. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of spatial features (habitat type, site and depth) and photon flux on the photosynthetic performance of 11 tropical seagrass species. Pulse amplitude modulated (PAM) fluorometry was used to generate rapid light curves from which measures of maximal electron transport rate (ETRmax), photosynthetic efficiency (?), saturating irradiance (Ek) and effective quantum yield (?F/Fm?) were derived. The amount of light absorbed by leaves (absorption factor) was also determined for each population. In intertidal habitats many seagrass species exhibited typical sun-type responses with a close coupling of both ETRmax and Ek with photon flux. Photosynthetic performance ranged from minima in Thalassodendron ciliatum to maxima in Syringodium isoetifolium. The absence of a coupling between photosynthetic performance and photon flux in subtidal populations was most likely due to highly variable light climates and possible light attenuation, and hence the photo-biology of estuarine and deepwater seagrasses exhibited photosynthetic responses indicative of light limitation. In contrast seagrass species from shallow reef and coastal habitats for the most part exhibited light saturation characteristics. Of all the variables examined ETRmax, Ek and ?F/Fm? were most responsive to changing light climates and provide reliable physiological indicators of real-time photosynthetic performance of tropical seagrasses under different light conditions.

In coastal waters and estuaries, seagrass meadows are often subject to light deprivation over short time scales (days to weeks) in response to increased turbidity from anthropogenic disturbances. Seagrasses may exhibit negative physiological responses to light deprivation and suffer stress, or tolerate such stresses through photo-adaptation of physiological processes allowing more efficient use of low light. Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) fluorometery has been used to rapidly assess changes in photosynthetic responses along in situ gradients in light. In this study, however, light is experimentally manipulated in the field to examine the photosynthesis of Halophila ovalis and Zostera capricorni. We aimed to evaluate the tolerance of these seagrasses to short-term light reductions. The seagrasses were subject to four light treatments, 0, 5, 60, and 90% shading, for a period of 14 days. In both species, as shading increased the photosynthetic variables significantly (P < 0.05) decreased by up to 40% for maximum electron transport rates (ETRmax) and 70% for saturating irradiances (Ek). Photosynthetic efficiencies (α) and effective quantum yields (ΔF/Fm′) increased significantly (P < 0.05), in both species, for 90% shaded plants compared with 0% shaded plants. H. ovalis was more sensitive to 90% shading than Z. capricorni, showing greater reductions in ETRmax, indicative of a reduced photosynthetic capacity. An increase in Ek, Fm′ and ΔF/Fm′ for H. ovalis and Z. capricorni under 90% shading suggested an increase in photochemical efficiency and a more efficient use of low-photon flux, consistent with photo-acclimation to shading. Similar responses were found along a depth gradient from 0 to10 m, where depth related changes in ETRmax and Ek in H. ovalis implied a strong difference of irradiance history between depths of 0 and 5–10 m. The results suggest that H. ovalis is more vulnerable to light deprivation than Z. capricorni and that H. ovalis, at depths of 5–10 m, would be more vulnerable to light deprivation than intertidal populations. Both species showed a strong degree of photo-adaptation to light manipulation that may enable them to tolerate and adapt to short-term reductions in light. These consistent responses to changes in light suggest that photosynthetic variables can be used to rapidly assess the status of seagrasses when subjected to sudden and prolonged periods of reduced light.

Seagrass ecosystems represent a global marine resource that is declining across its range. To halt degradation and promote recovery over large scales, management requires a radical change in emphasis and application that seeks to enhance seagrass ecosystem resilience. In this review we examine how the resilience of seagrass ecosystems is becoming compromised by a range of local to global stressors, resulting in ecological regime shifts that undermine the long-term viability of these productive ecosystems. To examine regime shifts and the management actions that can influence this phenomenon we present a conceptual model of resilience in seagrass ecosystems. The model is founded on a series of features and modifiers that act as interacting influences upon seagrass ecosystem resilience. Improved understanding and appreciation of the factors and modifiers that govern resilience in seagrass ecosystems can be utilised to support much needed evidence based management of a vital natural resource.

This study uses chlorophyll a fluorescence to examine the effect of environmentally relevant (1-4 h) exposures of thermal stress (35-45 [deg]C) on seagrass photosynthetic yield in seven tropical species of seagrasses. Acute response of each tropical seagrass species to thermal stress was characterised, and the capacity of each species to tolerate and recover from thermal stress was assessed. Two fundamental characteristics of heat stress were observed. The first effect was a decrease in photosynthetic yield (Fv / Fm) characterised by reductions in F and Fm'. The dramatic decline in Fv / Fm ratio, due to chronic inhibition of photosynthesis, indicates an intolerance of Halophila ovalis, Zostera capricorni and Syringodium isoetifolium to ecologically relevant exposures of thermal stress and structural alterations to the PhotoSystem II (PSII) reaction centres. The decline in Fm' represents heat-induced photoinhibition related to closure of PSII reaction centres and chloroplast dysfunction. The key finding was that Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Halodule uninervis and Thalassia hemprichii were more tolerant to thermal stress than H. ovalis, Z. capricorni and S. isoetifolium. After 3 days of 4 h temperature treatments ranging from 25 to 40 [deg]C, C. rotundata, C. serrulata and H. uninervis demonstrated a wide tolerance to temperature with no detrimental effect on Fv / Fm' qN or qP responses. These three species are restricted to subtropical and tropical waters and their tolerance to seawater temperatures up to 40 [deg]C is likely to be an adaptive response to high temperatures commonly occurring at low tides and peak solar irradiance. The results of temperature experiments suggest that the photosynthetic condition of all seagrass species tested are likely to suffer irreparable effects from short-term or episodic changes in seawater temperatures as high as 40-45 [deg]C. Acute stress responses of seagrasses to elevated seawater temperatures are consistent with observed reductions in above-ground biomass during a recent El Nino event.

The loss and recovery of intertidal seagrass meadows were assessed following the flood related catastrophic loss of seagrass meadows in February 1999 in the Sandy Strait, Queensland. Region wide recovery rates of intertidal meadows following the catastrophic disturbance were assessed by mapping seagrass abundance in the northern Great Sandy Strait region prior to and on 3 occasions after widespread loss of seagrass. Meadow-scale assessments of seagrass loss and recovery focussed on two existing Zostera capricorni monitoring meadows in the region. Mapping surveys showed that approximately 90% of intertidal seagrasses in the northern Great Sandy Strait disappeared after the February 1999 flooding of the Mary River. Full recovery of all seagrass meadows took 3 years. At the two study sites (Urangan and Wanggoolba Creek) the onset of Z. capricorni germination following the loss of seagrass occurred 14 months post-flood at Wanggoolba Creek, and at Urangan it took 20 months for germination to occur. By February 2001 (24 months post-flood) seagrass abundance at Wanggoolba Creek sites was comparable to pre-flood abundance levels and full recovery at Urangan sites was complete in August 2001 (31 months post-flood). Reduced water quality characterised by 2–3 fold increases in turbidity and nutrient concentrations during the 6 months following the flood was followed by a 95% loss of seagrass meadows in the region. Reductions in available light due to increased flood associated turbidity in February 1999 were the likely cause of seagrass loss in the Great Sandy Strait region, southern Queensland. Although seasonal cues influence the germination of Z. capricorni, the temporal variation in the onset of seed germination between sites suggests that germination following seagrass loss may be dependent on other factors (eg. physical and chemical characteristics of sediments and water). Elevated dissolved nitrogen concentrations during 1999 at Wanggoolba Creek suggest that this site received higher loads of sediments and nutrients from flood waters than Urangan. The germination of seeds at Wanggoolba Creek one year prior to Urangan coincides with relatively low suspended sediment concentrations in Wanggoolba Creek waters. The absence of organic rich sediments at Urangan for many months following their removal during the 1999 flood may also have inhibited seed germination. Data from population cohort analyses and population growth rates showed that rhizome weight and rhizome elongation rates increased over time, consistent with rapid growth during increases in temperature and light availability from May to October

Environmental decision-making applies transdisciplinary knowledge to deliver optimal outcomes. Here we synthesise various aspects of seagrass ecology to aid environmental decision-making, management and policy. Managers often mediate conflicting values and opinions held by different stakeholders. Critical to this role is understanding the drivers for change, effects of management actions and societal benefits. We use the diversity of seagrass habitats in Australia to demonstrate that knowledge from numerous fields is required to understand seagrass condition and resilience. Managers are often time poor and need access to synthesised assessments, commonly referred to as narratives. However, there is no single narrative for management of seagrass habitats in Australia, due to the diversity of seagrass meadows and dominant pressures. To assist the manager, we developed a classification structure based on attributes of seagrass life history, habitat and meadow form. Seagrass communities are formed from species whose life history strategies can be described as colonising, opportunistic or persistent. They occupy habitats defined by the range and variability of their abiotic environment. This results in seagrass meadows that are either transitory or enduring. Transitory meadows may come and go and able to re-establish from complete loss through sexual reproduction. Enduring meadows may fluctuate in biomass but maintain a presence by resisting pressures across multiple scales. This contrast reflects the interaction between the spatial and temporal aspects of species life history and habitat variability. Most management and monitoring strategies in place today favour enduring seagrasses. We adopt a functional classification of seagrass habitats based on modes of resilience to inform management for all seagrass communities. These concepts have world-wide relevance as the Australian case-studies have many analogues throughout the world. Additionally, the approach used to classify primary scientific knowledge into synthesised categories to aid management has value for many other disciplines interfacing with environmental decision-making.

Seagrass ecosystems are diminishing worldwide and repeated studies confirm a lack of appreciation for the value of these systems. In order to highlight their value we provide the first discussion of seagrass meadows as a coupled social–ecological system on a global scale. We consider the impact of a declining resource on people, including those for whom seagrass meadows are utilised for income generation and a source of food security through fisheries support. Case studies from across the globe are used to demonstrate the intricate relationship between seagrass meadows and people that highlight the multi-functional role of seagrasses in human wellbeing. While each case underscores unique issues, these examples simultaneously reveal social–ecological coupling that transcends cultural and geographical boundaries. We conclude that understanding seagrass meadows as a coupled social–ecological system is crucial in carving pathways for social and ecological resilience in light of current patterns of local to global environmental change.

NASA photographs taken from low Earth orbit can provide information relevant to conservation biology. This data source is now more accessible due to improvements in digitizing technology, Internet file transfer, and availability of image processing software. We present three examples of conservation-related projects that benefited from using orbital photographs. (1) A time series of photographs from the Space Shuttle showing wetland conversion in Japan was used as a tool for communicating about the impacts of tidal flat loss. Real-time communication with astronauts about a newsworthy event resulted in acquiring current imagery. These images and the availability of other high resolution digital images from NASA provided timely public information on the observed changes. (2) A Space Shuttle photograph of Chobe National Park in Botswana was digitally classified and analyzed to identify the locations of elephant-impacted woodland. Field validation later confirmed that areas identified on the image showed evidence of elephant impacts. (3) A summary map from intensive field surveys of seagrasses in Shoalwater Bay, Australia was used as reference data for a supervised classification of a digitized photograph taken from orbit. The classification was able to distinguish seagrasses, sediments and mangroves with accuracy approximating that in studies using other satellite remote sensing data. Orbital photographs are in the public domain and the database of nearly 400,000 photographs from the late 1960s to the present is available at a single searchable location on the Internet. These photographs can be used by conservation biologists for general information about the landscape and in quantitative applications.

Declines in seagrass biomass and growth have been widely reported in response to anthropogenic impacts. In contrast, the distribution and biomass of seagrass in the carbonate sediment around Green Island reef, part of Australia's Great Barrier Reef (GBR) has measurably increased during the past 50 yr, possibly due to increases in the availability of nutrients from local and regional anthropogenic sources. Using historical aerial photography, increases in seagrass distribution at Green Island have been mapped. The growth, morphological and physiological responses of 2 seagrass species (Halodule uninervis and Syringodium isoetifolium) to elevated sediment nitrogen (N; 100x control) and/or phosphorus (P; 10x control) were measured to investigate whether increased nutrients could account for the observed increase in distribution. Increases in the growth rate, amino acid composition and tissue nutrient content of both species occurred in response to elevated sediment N, but not P. Concentrations of the N-rich amino acids asparagine and glutamine increased 3- to 100-fold in seagrass leaves from N treatments. The δN values of leaves decreased in response to additions of nitrogen, probably due to increased discrimination against the N isotope, because N availability was surplus to demand. The low δN value of seagrasses in the Green Island back reef suggests that their primary source of N is either from N fixation or fertilisers and that the N from sewage is not a large component of their N budget. This study is the first to demonstrate N, rather than P, as the primary limiting nutrient for growth of seagrass in carbonate sediments and supports the hypothesis that the increase in the seagrass distribution and biomass at Green island was caused by an increase in nutrient availability. We also hypothesise that seagrass distribution and biomass in many regions of the GBR may be limited by nutrients and that the lack of substantial seagrass meadows in the southern GBR could be due to these reefs receiving less nutrients from the mainland.

Future impacts from climate change and human activities may increase the likelihood of invasions of native marine species into existing habitats as a result of range shifts. To provide an understanding of the invasion of a native seagrass species (Syringodium isoetifolium) into a tropical multi-species meadow, detailed field assessments were conducted over a six year period. After establishing in a discrete patch, the extent and standing crop of S.isoetifolium increased 800 and 7000 fold, respectively, between 1988 and 2003 (∼300-260,000 m(2) and1 kg DW to 7596±555 kg DW). The expansion of S.isoetifolium was confined to subtidal areas and appears primarily from clonal growth. The observed expansion of this species into a new locality was found to be clearly influenced by cumulative impacts and chronic small-scale physical disturbances. This study has immediate relevance to managing impacts which influence the spread of invasive species.

This chapter describes techniques for the mapping of intertidal and subtidal seagrass meadows at different scales and accuracy. Accurate information on seagrass distribution is vital as a prerequisite for managing seagrass resources. The type of questions asked by managers determines the sampling design for the surveys of seagrass habitats. Coastal managers may require maps at large scales to help select Marine and Estuarine Protected Areas (MEPAs) or highlight vulnerable areas to an oil spill.. Alternatively, they may require maps at finer scales to assist in coastal development decisions, such as where to put marinas, harbors, effluent outfalls, exploratory mining, and mariculture developments.. Maps at several different scales may also be required to assist in monitoring the health status of seagrass habitats. The use of the GPS has facilitated the production of precisely geo-referenced images that can be incorporated into GIS database for the analysis of seagrass distribution and characteristics. The incorporation of GPS and GIS technologies has lead to the development of spatial database systems for seagrass, which can be queried, updated, manipulated, and analyzed, something previously inconceivable. The use of GIS technologies, involving the quantitative expression of spatially consistent data, provides advanced analytical capabilities, and the ability to address complex systems.

Highly productive tropical seagrasses often live adjacent to or among coral reefs and utilize large amounts of inorganic carbon. In this study, the effect of seagrass productivity on seawater carbonate chemistry and coral calcification was modelled on the basis of an analysis of published data. Published data (11 studies, 64 records) reveal that seagrass meadows in the Indo-Pacific have an 83% chance of being net autotrophic, resulting in an average net sink of 155gCm2yr1. The capacities for seagrass productivity were analysed using an empirical model to examine the effect on seawater carbonate chemistry. Our analyses indicate that increases in pH of up to 0.38 units, and Ωarag increases of 2.9 are possible in the presence of seagrass meadows (compared to their absence) with the precise values of these increases dependent on water residence time (tidal flushing) and water depth. In shallow water reef environments, Scleractinian coral calcification downstream of seagrass has the potential to be 18% greater than in an environment without seagrass. If this potential benefit to reef calcifiers is supported by further study it offers a potential tool in marine park management at a local scale. The applicability of this will depend upon local physical conditions as well as the spatial configuration of habitats, and the factors that influence their productivity. This novel study suggests that, in addition to their importance to fisheries, sediment stabilization and primary production, seagrass meadows may enhance coral reef resilience to future ocean acidification. © 2012 IOP Publishing Ltd.

Global seagrass habitats are threatened by multiple anthropogenic factors. Effective management of seagrasses requires information on the relative impacts of threats; however, this information is rarely available. Our goal was to use the knowledge of experts to assess the relative impacts of anthropogenic activities in six global seagrass bioregions. The activities that threaten seagrasses were identified at an international seagrass workshop and followed with a web-based survey to collect seagrass vulnerability information. There was a global consensus that urban/industrial runoff, urban/port infrastructure development, agricultural runoff and dredging had the greatest impact on seagrasses, though the order of relative impacts varied by bioregion. These activities are largely terrestrially based, highlighting the need for marine planning initiatives to be co-ordinated with adjacent watershed planning. Sea level rise and increases in the severity of cyclones were ranked highest relative to other climate change related activities, but overall the five climate change activities were ranked low and experts were uncertain of their effects on seagrasses. The experts’ preferred mechanism of delivering management outcomes were processes such as policy development, planning and consultation rather than prescriptive management tools. Our approach to collecting expert opinion provides the required data to prioritize seagrass management actions at bioregional scales.

Coastal, reef-associated and deepwater (> 15 m) seagrass habitats form a large and ecologically important community on the Queensland continental shelf. Broad-scale resource inventories of coastal seagrasses were completed in the 1980s and were used in marine park and fisheries zoning to protect some seagrasses. At least eleven of the fifteen known species in the region reach their latitudinal limits of distribution in Queensland and at least two Halophila species may be endemic to Queensland or northeastern Australia. The importance of seagrasses to Dugongs Dugong dugon, Green Turtles Chelonia mydas and commercially valuable prawn fisheries, will continue to strongly influence directions in seagrass research and conservation management in Queensland. Widespread loss of seagrasses following natural cyclone and flood events in some locations has had serious consequences to regional populations of Dugong. However, the impacts to Queensland fisheries are little studied. Agricultural land use practices may exacerbate the effects of natural catastrophic events, but the long-term impacts of nutrients, pesticides and sediment loads on Queensland seagrasses are also unknown. Most areas studied are nutrient limited and human impacts on seagrasses in Queensland are low to moderate, and could include increases in habitat since modern settlement. Most impacts are in southern, populated localities where shelter and water conditions ideal for productive seagrass habitat are often targets for port development, and are at the downstream end of heavily modified catchments. For Queensland to avoid losses experienced by other states, incremental increases in impacts associated with population and development pressure must be managed. Seagrass areas receive priority consideration in oil spill management within the Great Barrier Reef and coastal ports. Present fisheries legislation for marine plant protection, marine parks and area closures to trawl fishing help protect inshore seagrass prawn nursery and Dugong feeding habitat, but seagrasses in deep water do not yet receive any special zoning protection. Efficacy of the various Local, State and Commonwealth Acts and planning programmes for seagrass conservation is limited by the expanse and remoteness of Queensland's northern coast, but is improving through broad-based education programmes. Institutional support is sought to enable community groups to augment limited research and monitoring programmes with local "habitat watch" programmes. Research is helping to describe the responses of seagrass to natural and human impacts and to determine acceptable levels of changes in seagrass meadows and water quality conditions that may cause those changes. The management of loss and regeneration of sea grass is benefiting from new information collected on life histories and mechanisms of natural recovery in Queensland species. Maintenance of Queensland's seagrasses systems will depend on improved community awareness, regional and long-term planning and active changes in coastal land use to contain overall downstream impacts and stresses.

Glands are abundant in the paragnaths and distal endopod segments of the second maxillipeds of Penaeus merguiensis. Seven gland types have been identified and their secretions differentiated into acidic sulfated mucopolysaccharides and carboxylated mucopolysaccharides. In the paragnaths secretions are discharged through groups of pores on the oral and aboral surfaces, and in the second maxillipeds through a dense row of pores on the aboral surface at the propodus-dactylus articulation. Glands are not sexually dimorphic and glandular morphology does not change during the moult cycle. Glandular products probably have a role in feeding by lubricating large particles and entangling particulate matter in mucus.