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Air pollution, population growth, and the lack of fossil energy sources are critical factors that drive people toward clean and renewable energies in the current century. Biogas is suitable for rural farmers as a source of clean energy. Since there are many social interactions in knowledge exchange and sharing, the transfer of skills, and participation among individuals, various actors are involved in the network. The power and influence of actors and the social interactions between smallholder farmers and these actors fuel the development of biogas consumption in rural areas. Therefore, this study analyzes the social network structures and characteristics of various actors by social network analysis (SNA) in knowledge sharing, the transfer of skills, and participation networks among traditional smallholder farmers in Iran. The research sample consisted of some smallholder farmers in four provinces of Fars, Khorasan Razavi, Golestan, and Kermanshah (144 smallholder farmers). The research instrument was a questionnaire designed as a matrix. The findings showed that based on the betweenness centrality score, biogas-consuming smallholder farmers (34.56) and cooperatives of smallholder farmers (24.79) were the main actors in the network of knowledge sharing, respectively. Furthermore, biogas-consuming smallholder farmers (28.04) and pioneer smallholder farmers (27.11) were the main actors in the network of participation, respectively. The betweenness centrality score revealed that cooperatives of smallholder farmers (29.23) and opinion leaders (23.33) were the main actors in the network of skills transfer, respectively. It can be concluded that these actors had high social power and influence among smallholder farmers and can be the core of the smallholder farmers’ social networks. It means that they can influence the development of biogas consumption among Iranian smallholder farmers.

As major public health concerns associated with a rapidly growing aging population, neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) and neurological diseases are important causes of disability and mortality. Neurological diseases affect millions of people worldwide. Recent studies have indicated that apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress are the main players of NDDs and have critical roles in neurodegenerative processes. During the aforementioned inflammatory/apoptotic/oxidative stress procedures, the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway plays a crucial role. Considering the functional and structural aspects of the blood–brain barrier, drug delivery to the central nervous system is relatively challenging. Exosomes are nanoscale membrane-bound carriers that can be secreted by cells and carry several cargoes, including proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and metabolites. Exosomes significantly take part in the intercellular communications due to their specific features including low immunogenicity, flexibility, and great tissue/cell penetration capabilities. Due to their ability to cross the blood–brain barrier, these nano-sized structures have been introduced as proper vehicles for central nervous system drug delivery by multiple studies. In the present systematic review, we highlight the potential therapeutic effects of exosomes in the context of NDDs and neurological diseases by targeting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.

Polydatin is a natural potent stilbenoid polyphenol and a resveratrol derivative with improved bioavailability. Polydatin possesses potential biological activities predominantly through the modulation of pivotal signaling pathways involved in inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. Various imperative biological activities have been suggested for polydatin towards promising therapeutic effects, including anticancer, cardioprotective, anti-diabetic, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, anti-microbial, as well as health-promoting roles on the renal system, the respiratory system, rheumatoid diseases, the skeletal system, and women’s health. In the present study, the therapeutic targets, biological activities, pharmacological mechanisms, and health benefits of polydatin are reviewed to provide new insights to researchers. The need to develop further clinical trials and novel delivery systems of polydatin is also considered to reveal new insights to researchers.