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* Context.--RNA sequencing study has demonstrated that human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) RNA levels influence anti-HER2 therapeutic efficacy. However, in situ HER2 RNA expression (isHRE), which evaluates HER2 RNA expression in tissue, has remained unclear in breast cancers (BCs) of various HER2 immunohistochemistry (IHC)/in situ hybridization (ISH) categories. Objective.--To correlate isHRE with all HER2 IHC/ fluorescence ISH (FISH) categories in BC. Design.--Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue sections from 259 BCs, covering all IHC/FISH categories, were analyzed for isHRE by RNAscope. Results.--We validated HER2 RNAscope scoring as a semiquantitative method to evaluate isHRE and demonstrated significantly higher RNAscope scores in IHC 3+ than in IHC 2+ cases, and in IHC 2+ than in IHC 0/1 + cases. Among the 5 IHC 2+/FISH groups, group 1 (G1) cases had the highest scores. The scores in G3 cases were higher than those in G2, but not significantly different from those in G4 and G5. G4 cases had significantly higher scores than those in G2. Higher HER2 copy numbers and HER2:CEP 17 (centromere 17) copy number ratios were significantly correlated with higher isHRE in G1 cases, but not in G2 to G5 cases. RNAscope scores were significantly lower in HER2-negative (IHC 0) than in HER2-low (IHC 2+/FISH- and IHC 1+) BCs but were not different between IHC 0 and 1+ BCs when analyzed separately. Conclusions.--We demonstrate the HER2 RNA expression status among BCs of various HER2 IHC/FISH categories in tissue. Such information may be relevant for anti-HER2 treatment decisions considering the role of HER2 RNA expression in predicting anti-HER2 therapeutic efficacy., Approximately 15% of invasive breast cancers (BCs) are human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) positive, defined as HER2 gene amplification or protein overexpression, (1) and such tumors are sensitive [...]

Distractor analyses are routinely conducted in educational assessments with multiple-choice items. In this research report, we focus on three item response models for distractors: (a) the traditional nominal response (NR) model, (b) a combination of a two-parameter logistic model for item scores and a NR model for selections of incorrect distractors, and (c) a model in which the item score satisfies a two-parameter logistic model and distractor selection and proficiency are conditionally independent, given that an incorrect response is selected. Model comparisons involve generalized residuals, information measures, scale scores, and reliability estimates. To illustrate the methodology, a study of an international assessment of proficiency of nonnative speakers of a single target language used to make high-stakes decisions compares the models under study.

In standardized educational testing, test items are reused in multiple test administrations. To ensure the validity of test scores, the psychometric properties of items should remain unchanged over time. In this article, we consider the sequential monitoring of test items, in particular, the detection of abrupt changes to their psychometric properties, where a change can be caused by, for example, leakage of the item or change of the corresponding curriculum. We propose a statistical framework for the detection of abrupt changes in individual items. This framework consists of (1) a multistream Bayesian change point model describing sequential changes in items, (2) a compound risk function quantifying the risk in sequential decisions, and (3) sequential decision rules that control the compound risk. Throughout the sequential decision process, the proposed decision rule balances the trade-off between two sources of errors, the false detection of prechange items, and the nondetection of postchange items. An item-specific monitoring statistic is proposed based on an item response theory model that eliminates the confounding from the examinee population which changes over time. Sequential decision rules and their theoretical properties are developed under two settings: the oracle setting where the Bayesian change point model is completely known and a more realistic setting where some parameters of the model are unknown. Simulation studies are conducted under settings that mimic real operational tests.

Educational assessment data are often collected from a set of test centers across various geographic regions, and therefore the data samples contain clusters. Such cluster-based data may result in clustering effects in variance estimation. However, in many grouped jackknife variance estimation applications, jackknife groups are often formed by a random grouping method that ignores the cluster structures of the data. In this study, we constructed both random and cluster-based jackknife groups for data known to have cluster structures and compared the jackknifed standard errors, yielded by two different grouping methods, of item response theory (IRT) scaling coefficient estimates and equated scores. Three independent data samples from an international test of English were used for the study. The cluster-based jackknife group results showed relatively larger jackknifed standard errors of scaling coefficient estimates and scale scores than the results of the random jackknife groups for all three data samples. For cluster-based assessment data, the cluster-based jackknife approach provides a more appropriate way to estimate the standard errors of the parameters of IRT calibration, scaling, and equating analyses. [The content of this manuscript was presented at the 2015 annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association in Chicago, Illinois, April 16-20, 2015.]

In investigations of unusual testing behavior, a common question is whether a specific pattern of responses occurs unusually often within a group of examinees. In many current tests, modern communication techniques can permit quite large numbers of examinees to share keys, or common response patterns, to the entire test. To address this issue, statistical methods are provided to identify examinees in a test with answers that exactly match and to assess whether such exact matches are unusual. In addition, methodology is provided to identify examinees with response patterns unusually similar to circulated keys. Application is made to a testing program.

For assessments that use different forms in different administrations, equating methods are applied to ensure comparability of scores over time. Ideally, a score scale is well maintained throughout the life of a testing program. In reality, instability of a score scale can result from a variety of causes, some are expected while others may be unforeseen. The situation is more challenging for assessments that assemble many different forms and deliver frequent administrations per year. Harmonic regression, a seasonal-adjustment method, has been found useful in achieving the goal of differentiating between possible known sources of variability and unknown sources so as to study score stability for such assessments. As an extension, this paper presents a family of three approaches that incorporate examinees' demographic data into harmonic regression in different ways. A generic evaluation method based on jackknifing is developed to compare the approaches within the family. The three approaches are compared using real data from an international language assessment. Results suggest that all approaches perform similarly and are effective in meeting the goal. The paper also discusses the properties and limitations of the three approaches, along with inferences about score (in)stability based on the harmonic regression results.

This paper analyzes the relationship between the excessive use of social networking sites and physical and mental well-being of young adults. The first part of the paper reveals the physical and mental health concerns resulting in the excessive use of social networking sites. The second part of the paper uncovers the reasons why negative health impacts are associated with the excessive use of these social platforms. The third part of the paper addresses the possible solutions to minimize the negative health effects from the excessive use of social networking sites.

BackgroundShewanella algae has been recognized as an emerging human pathogen. However, not much is known about the mechanism of its pathogenesis and its adaptation to a special niche such as the hepatobiliary tract.ResultsIn this study, we isolated the S. algae ACCC strain from human bile and performed whole genome sequencing. S. algae ACCC consists of a circular 4,743,354-bp chromosome with a GC content of 53.08%, within 4080 protein coding sequences. The genome of strain ACCC contains a number of candidate genes which have been reported to be associated with bile adaption, including htpB, exbBD, wecA, galU, adeFGH and phoPQ regulon.ConclusionsOur results highlight the association of S. algae with a rare disease profile. Further studies are needed to shed light on the evolution of pathogenesis and the niche adaptation of S. algae.

Test-taking experience is a consequence of the interaction between students and assessment properties. We define a new notion, rapid-pacing behavior, to reflect two types of test-taking experience – disengagement and speededness. To identify rapid-pacing behavior, we extend existing methods to develop response-time thresholds for individual items based on empirical patterns of response time and response accuracy. An analysis procedure is proposed to compare the extent of rapid-pacing behavior across testing formats. We also present a case study using datasets from an educational survey assessment of mathematics. A large-scale randomized experiment was conducted involving two testing formats (linear and multistage) for U.S. 8th-grade students. Results suggest that using multistage testing instead of linear testing has differential impact on test-taking experience across performance levels. The lower performers appear more engaged when presented with items better targeted to their proficiency, whereas the higher performers experience more time pressure when presented with more difficult items. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many educational tests, both multiple-choice (MC) and constructed-response (CR) sections are used to measure different constructs. In many common cases, security concerns lead to the use of form-specific CR items that cannot be used for equating test scores, along with MC sections that can be linked to previous test forms via common items. In such cases, adjustment by minimum discriminant information may be used to link CR section scores and composite scores based on both MC and CR sections. This approach is an innovative extension that addresses the long-standing issue of linking CR test scores across test forms in the absence of common items in educational measurement. It is applied to a series of administrations from an international language assessment with MC sections for receptive skills and CR sections for productive skills. To assess the linking results, harmonic regression is applied to examine the effects of the proposed linking method on score stability, among several analyses for evaluation.